4. According to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/:
    General information about
    the evolution of the brain, principles of its
    functioning, the reasons for the manifestation
    of genius, the triplicity of consciousness and
    the complexity of modeling the brain.
    According to Hermann Haken (1927-2024):
    models of biological
    SYNERGETIC (SELF-ORGANIZING)
    ANALOGUE COMPUTERS.

      4.1. On the role of morphofunctional fields and subfields of the neocortex in the human brain.

       Archicortex, paleocortex, neocortex.

      Neocortex (from Latin neocortex), new cortex, alternative name: isocortex (thickness 3.5-4 mm) - new areas of the human cerebral cortex, located in the upper layer of the cerebral hemispheres and responsible for higher nervous functions (sensory perception, execution of motor commands, conscious thinking, speech). Neurons are vertically combined into so-called cortex columns.
      At the beginning of the 20th century, Brodmann showed that in all mammals the new cortex has 6 horizontal layers of neurons.
      The neocortex contains up to 30 billion neurons. Up to 5 capillaries are connected to each neuron cell to provide nutrition and remove waste products.
      The entire human brain contains up to 80-100 billion neurons (according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/ - up to 150 billion neurons).
      The human brain consists of approximately 10^+14th power synapses.

      There is one complex modified activation function (-`template`) for one trained NN AI.

      And the 6-layer neocortex of the human brain, which is divided into approximately 60 (morphofunctional) fields (responsible for specific functions), which, in turn, are divided into many subfields (responsible for specialized functions), has many functions that change over time.

      The transition zone between one and another (morphofunctional) field is called limitrophe adaptation.
      During the research, the evolutionary fact was revealed that the lower the animal in terms of development, the greater its limitrophe adaptation. Thus, in cats, the relative sizes of limitrophic adaptations are large, and the closer to humans, the smaller the relative sizes of limitrophic adaptations.
      From the book "Cerebral Sorting" (https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/):
      «... Limitrophe adaptations became a real battlefield for reproductive and social success.
      Those who had fewer of them thought better, adapted, stole, cheated, hid their shortcomings and demonstrated their virtues.
      The unfortunate owners of large limitrophe adaptations were destined to the role of whipping boys or dead heroes.
      They passionately carried out bloody coups, started wars and destroyed countries.
      Their archaic brain demanded large-scale social actions, in which they enthusiastically participated.
      However, the fruits of the activity of the owners of outdated cerebral structures are always enjoyed by quiet conformists ...»
      (Neurologist, neuroanatomist I.N. Filimonov (1890 - 1966) proved that the functional fields responsible for vision, hearing, smell, etc., coincide with the morphological ones).

      ... The sizes of these (morphofunctional) fields determine specific functions: if the field is large, then the functions can be better. ...

     ... The boundaries of (morphofunctional) fields and subfields are determined by the vertical ordering of neurons, and by their `packing` - this is cytoarchitectonics (from the Greek κύτος - «cell», from the Greek "άρχι" - "highest, main", from the Greek τεκτονική, τεκτονικός, «structure, construction», «construction art») ...

      ... Here are all these (morphofunctional) fields (of the human brain), each responsible for its own function, there are a lot of them in humans (about 60 main ones), and they are very changeable ...
      (There are more than 300 fields and subfields in the neocortex in total, and sometimes some fields may be absent or, conversely, present individually (an example - the brain of the poet V. Mayakovsky, whose avant-garde poems `hammered` into the consciousness of the masses the belief in the ideas of a `communist utopia`)).
      ... Of particular interest are the publications by neuromorphologist E.P. Kononova (1880 - 1969)/ (here is a part of 60 scientific works)/ materials on the variability of five subfields of field 47 of the frontal cortex of the brain, which predetermines individual character traits, habits and innate human inclinations. The individual variability of these subfields is incredibly high and can reach 1400% ...

     ... For example, the sizes of 17, 18, 19 morphofunctional fields in artists can differ by 3-5 times from the sizes in the average person ...

     ... If the frontal and lower parietal parts of the brain are enlarged, then this is a sign of possible genius in some areas of human activity ...

      The functions of the brain include processing sensory information from the senses, planning, decision making, coordination, motor control, emotions, attention, memory.

      The human brain performs higher mental functions, including thinking.

      One of the functions of the human brain is the perception and generation of speech.

      ... For example, here are some specific functions of (morphofunctional) fields:

      ● visual: there are graphic primitives - the primary visual field, color, it's all on the back of the head - there are three fields responsible for vision;

      ● speech fields, the famous Broca's area (center), which is responsible for speech. Wernicke's area (sensory speech area, Wernicke's speech area) is a part of the cerebral cortex, which, like Broca's area, has been associated with speech since the end of the 19th century.

      ● thumb control (motor skills) with feedback (sensorics);

      ● etc.

      ... But the horror is not in this, they (the fields of the human brain) are present in almost everyone, and the horror is that they are individually variable and are divided within themselves into subfields, which have even more specialized functions.

      If the difference in fields (the volume of fields, in different people) is 3-5 times, then this is a huge difference (this affects the acquisition of certain skills, the predisposition to talents in a person)....

      ... But there is an even worse situation. In subfields, the difference, for example, in the association areas in the same subfields of both motor and auditory, the limbic system, which is responsible for the emotional-hormonal regulation of behavior, is 40 (!!!) times.

      And this is already very bad. This is the very case when they "step on you and do not notice". In intellectual terms, I mean. And here the difference (for different people) becomes monstrous. ...

      ... The development of the nervous system and behavior occurs in accordance with the principles of adaptive evolution ...
      ... The evolution of the brain led to the development of the cytoarchitectonics of its cortex ...
      ... Currently, to search for the morphological foundations of human giftedness, it is very important to study the individual variability of the architectonics and subcortical structures of the brain ...
      ... Control of early embryonic development of the vertebrate brain is substantiated in the positional theory, which proves that in the early stages of development there is no strict genetic determination ...
      ... That is, the fate of the cell is determined not by the genome, but by intercellular biomechanical interactions. (The structure of the brain is not genetically determined - up to 80% of the brain structure and intercellular interactions are determined by the processes of morphogenesis) ...
      ... I.N. Filimonov, a famous neurologist who studied the brains of many famous people at that time (at the `Brain Institute`) , studied, among others, the brains of Georgians, Jews, Germans, Russians, Chinese, Buryats ... (at least two races and several nations).
      He compared the results of the study of samples with each other, and, further, in Germany in the 1930s, he published a work in which he substantiated that individual variability of the brain is much higher than racial.
      This means that a child born regardless of the country, nation, race and profession of his parents may have certain large morphofunctional fields in the neocortex, and such a brain structure indicates his predisposition to genius in a certain area of human activity.

      Artificial cerebral sorting, proposed at https://brainmicroscopy.com/, using a tomograph created in the future (based on the principles of X-ray optics , phase contrast) with a resolution of 1 μm, will allow to determine the predisposition of each person to brilliant activity in a specific area during life.
      During a special histological study, this technology has already been tested on a synchrotron emitting electromagnetic waves in the X-ray range.
      In this case, the images obtained on the synchrotron were compared with the images of the same, but stained histological sample obtained by the traditional method.
      The results coincided.





      There are no average people, there are individuals, and in the future, at the age of 18-20, there will be an opportunity to determine what kind of activity a person will receive joy from, and not endless suffering.
      And then, for a specific person, it will be possible to select a job in which he will be a genius, and this will allow us to achieve personal justice in the payment of his labor and maximum benefit for society.

      For example, sometimes one can notice professors - `functionaries` who inherit this title in the 4th generation, who are clearly not intended to work in the scientific field.
      They suffer internally from their unsuitability for science, but outwardly they imitate vigorous pseudo-scientific activity.
      And, at the same time, they can be brilliant in a completely different field of activity and enjoy it.

      ... A telling example from the Soviet era is when they `pushed` `dark horses` into corresponding members and members of the USSR Academy of Sciences by secret ballot.
      Recognized as a Nobel Prize laureate in physics (October 29, 1964), professor Nikolai Gennadievich Basov (1922 — 2001) was elected as a corresponding member only on the third application (in 1966 he became a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences).
      The first and second times he was not elected, but some unremarkable `dark horses` were elected.
      For the world scientific community, this became a reason for laughter.
      And only under pressure from the party elite, Professor Nikolai Gennadievich Basov, finally, on the third attempt, the Academy Sciences of the USSR was recognized as a corresponding member.
      What did Professor Nikolay Gennadievich Basov discover together with Professor Alexander Mikhailovich Prokhorov (1916 — 2002) (also a Nobel Prize laureate in physics in 1964 (jointly with Nikolai Gennadievich Basov and Charles Hard Townes (1915 – 2015))).
      In 1952, they established the principle of amplification and generation of electromagnetic radiation by quantum systems, which made it possible to create the world's first quantum generator (maser) on a beam of ammonia molecules in 1954.
      The following year, a three-level scheme for creating an inverse population of levels was proposed, which found wide application in masers and lasers, which had a significant impact on humanity, since it became the basis for the development of various technologies ...

      This artificial cerebral sorting can be used for the most effective personnel optimization in any profession, which will give a colossal competitive advantage over other companies, corporations, countries.

      That is, in order to achieve the most effective functioning of communities, companies, collaborations of scientific organizations, management structures, states, ..., it is necessary to move from personnel biological (`animal`) selection to social (taking into account human creative potential (human creative `capital`)).

      It is important to note here that many psychological tests (for example: an IQ test, tests for demonstrating meaninglessly memorized information, tests for combinatorics, ...) were created by mediocre psychologists to identify the best mediocrities among the subjects, which often does not give an objective picture of a person's creative abilities in any area of human activity.

      An objective method for identifying a person’s predisposition (starting from 15-18 years old) to creativity in any area of human activity (in science, art, sports, people management, in professions that involve very precise and fast manipulation of some controls or tools, ...), is possible by analyzing the sizes of the corresponding morphofunctional fields and subfields of the neocortex, information about which can be obtained during life using a tomograph that has not yet been created (based on the principles of X-ray optics, phase contrast) with a resolution of 1 μm.

      There is also an indirect, not so precise, but also objective method of this assessment (by https://brainmicroscopy.com/).

      This is the performance by the subject of, for example, specially composed written tasks (or speech, motor, ...), with the removal of readings of the blood flow intensity in certain areas of the neocortex using a traditional tomograph (resolution of about 100 μm on standard tomographs, for dental cone-beam 2d/3d computer, dental tomographs - 70 μm, and the most advanced tomographs - 10 μm).

      And, based on the results of the readings, a rougher assessment of the sizes (boundaries) of the involved morphofunctional fields, subfields and associative areas of the neocortex, with further identification those sizes of fields (or associative areas) that exceed the average data, which will indicate a much better functioning of these fields (or associative areas), compared to other people.

      (The initial functioning of the processes of rational thinking in the association areas of the neocortex is due to the formation of certain morphofunctional fields and associative zones of the neocortex, which occurs by the age of 7-9, a sufficiently mature formation of morphofunctional fields (their sizes) occurs at about 18 years of age, and their final formation is completed at 25-27 years of age, sometimes at 30 years old).
      Children are by nature more biological (less socialized) than adults (rational self-awareness occurs only in a social environment).
      And the process of a child growing up is a process of imitation of other individuals (primates are recognized `masters` of imitation).
      If a child for some reason spends childhood in a pack of animals (`Mowgli children`), then, later, when he gets into human society, he cannot fully socialize.

      In the future, in order for a child to realize his predisposition to genius in a certain area of human activity, a certain environment of upbringing and education is required, within the framework of the corresponding specialization.
      It should be taken into account that different parts of the child's brain develop heterochronically.

      It is necessary to separate the processes of thinking, which can be in images or in words.
      Thinking in images is slow, occurs in morphofunctional fields, which are located in the back of the head and occupy up to 15% of the brain (not only humans, but also animals can think this way). The use of hieroglyphs in some languages, calligraphy, fine art, develop this type of thinking and memory (eidetics).
      Thinking in words is faster than in images, it is inherent in humans, while the morphofunctional fields of the brain are involved (mainly in the association areas), which occupy up to 50% of the brain.
      Thinking in words can be 3 times faster than speech.

      How can we identify, without a tomograph that has not yet been created (based on the principles of X-ray optics, phase contrast) with a resolution of 1 μm, what activity a person is most predisposed to?
      To save energy, which is intended only to satisfy biological needs, the brain will `resist`, `protest`, prohibit (through the release of certain endogenous substances) a person from engaging in a very energy-consuming activity, which is not intended to satisfy his biological needs (3 main drives according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/).

      Paradoxically, a person is most predisposed to the activity, when engaged in which, the brain begins to desperately `resist`.
      And this means that the limbic system of the brain secretes endogenous substances (for example, `happiness hormones`), which affect the neocortex, including associative zones (functional) , which come into a state of inhibition, and such a state is perceived as procrastination (`laziness`), `bliss`.
      The limbic system of the brain (like other organs of the body) can secrete various endogenous substances that have a positive or negative effect on the EMOTIONAL STATE of a person (through chemical modulation of ACTION POTENTIALS - `SPIKES`, in chemical synapses located at the ends of dendrites and forming neural connections (for more details, see below)).
      The impact on the EMOTIONAL STATE of a person can also be produced by exogenous substances with a similar mechanism of influence, which can enter the body from the outside, for example: with food, with drink, through the respiratory system, invasive injections of various medical drugs - chemicals compounds.
      These endogenous and exogenous substances are capable of attaching to receptors (protein complexes) of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, which are located on the cell membrane of chemical synapses.
      For example, narcotic substances, caffeine, alcohol, ... (this is a clarification for understanding the development of negative addictions) are capable of attaching to receptors of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators.
      Then, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are destroyed by enzymes or absorbed by neurons - these processes control the duration of the signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL - `SPIKA`), transmitted to the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite (part of the synapse).
      It is these processes that some pharmacological drugs act on to treat, for example, depression.
      For example, classical antidepressants are inhibitors of the reuptake of the neurotransmitter - serotonin.
      They do not allow, for example, serotonin (a neurotransmitter) to quickly disappear from the contact site, prolonging its effect on chemical synapses neurons.
      An imbalance of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (psychosomatic disorders) may be associated with burnout syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome and mood changes, abdominal pain, headache, loss of concentration, the occurrence of Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis or Alzheimer's disease ...

      Associative areas (zones) are areas that do not have direct connections with the periphery, but have extensive connections with both sensory and motor areas. In the posterior parts of the cortex, they are located between the parietal, occipital and temporal areas, in the anterior ones they occupy the main surface of the frontal lobes.

   

      (Not so long ago, it was discovered that associative centers based on other brain structures also exist in other vertebrates (in taxonomy recognizes from 7 to 9 modern classes of vertebrates): mammals, birds, reptiles or creeping things (turtles, crocodiles, beaked heads, scaly), amphibians, fish, ... And also insects, arthropods, cephalopods (octopuses, squids, cuttlefish) ...
      Many of these animals, in the association centers, have the ability at a primitive level to `PERCEIVE` / `LEARNING` / `MODELING` / `ANALYSIS` / `ADAPTATION` to a NEW SITUATION).









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      In specially conducted experiments, they tried to stimulate the associative areas of the brain with electric current, but no movements in the body or response through the sense organs were detected.
      Therefore, the study of their functioning was carried out indirectly - the loss of some features of thinking was studied during their accidental trauma.

      Associative areas cause associations - knowledge of the surrounding world, including the invention of everything new.
      For example, if, on the basis of the whole brain, personal experience, to carry out a huge preliminary work on studying it does not matter what and discover something new in it for yourself, then at the moment when an understanding of the sense of what was studied occurs (how it is arranged, how it works), and those very association areas function, and they serve as a kind of superstructure over the remaining morphofunctional fields and subfields of the neocortex, which are responsible for performing specific functions: vision, hearing, touch, smell, motor, sensorimotor, etc.
      Associative areas integrate and generalize information coming from the morphofunctional fields and subfields of the neocortex (which, in turn, receive information from various sense organs).

      Integration (understanding) of information (knowledge) studied occurs in associative areas and consists of:
      ● Establishing connections between objects according to some criteria.
      ● Establishing connections between events (cause and effect).
      ● Seeing a pattern (cause and effect) where it is not obvious.
      ● Forecasting (cause and effect), the ability to predict the outcome.

      When the limbic system of the brain secretes endogenous substances that inhibit the work of the associative areas of the neocortex, a significant portion of the energy that would be spent on the work of certain individually large morphofunctional fields of the neocortex is saved (and they predispose an individual to genius in something else besides the 3 biological drives).
      To `deceive`, `distract` associative zones (functional) from inhibition, use forced loading of sensorimotor morphofunctional fields through the control of some cyclic muscle contractions or use the effect on touch, smell, hearing.

      To train the brain, it is necessary to increase local blood circulation in a certain area, which will promote the growth of new neural connections and an increase in the size of certain morphofunctional fields of the brain, and this happens if you regularly engage in some unmastered business, a person becomes a professional in this chosen field of activity.

      If you don't learn anything new or create something new, after age 50, up to 30 g of neurons will die every 10 years.
      A negative aspect is also that brain cells, neurons, are not able to recover when they die.
      And a positive aspect is that the human brain is able to rebuild its functional connections, creating new ones. This is neuroplasticity.
      This may be one of the reasons why athletes who are only concerned with maintaining physical health and who do not practice creative problem solving, when the time comes, leave this life with a physically practically healthy body.
      Nobody promises athletes a long life, they only promise a healthy life, which is also not a small thing.
      In such cases, athletes have well-developed motor areas of the brain, and associative areas can degrade (sclerotic changes), so a balance between physical activity and mental activity is important.

      Also, metagenomic and epidemiological studies show the important role of the human microbiome in preventing a wide range of diseases, from type 2 diabetes, obesity, inflammatory bowel diseases to Parkinson's disease and even psychiatric diseases such as depression.
      The symbiotic relationship between the gut microbiota and various bacteria in the human body can influence the human immune response, and, as a result, the lifespan.
      Some studies suggest that microbiome-based treatments may be effective in treating diabetes, as well as a number of other diseases.
      Although cancer is a mixture of genetic diseases and environmental factors, microbes are involved in 20% of cases.



      As for the overall lifespan of somatic cells, it is limited by the number of divisions - determined by the Hayflick limit.
       Hayflick limit — the limit of the number of divisions of somatic cells, named after its discoverer Leonard Hayflick (1928-2024).
      In 1961, Leonard Hayflick observed that human cells dividing (the process of mitosis) in cell culture died after about 50 divisions and showed signs of aging as they approached this limit. (In plants, the limit is 90-95 divisions).
      The Hayflick limit is associated with a reduction in the size of telomeres, sections of DNA at the ends of chromosomes.
      As is known, the DNA molecule is capable of replication before each cell division.
      At the same time, the telomeres at its ends are shortened after each cell division.
      The cell contains the enzyme telomerase, the activity of which can ensure the lengthening of telomeres, while the life of the cell is also extended.
      Cells in which telomerase functions (sex, cancer) are immortal.
      In ordinary (somatic) cells, which are what the body mainly consists of, telomerase “does not work”, so the telomeres shorten with each cell division, which ultimately leads to its death within the Hayflick limit, because another enzyme, DNA polymerase, is not able to replicate the ends of the DNA molecule.

      The storyline of the novel by Honoré de Balzac - «The Skin of Shagreen» (French La Peau de Chagrin, 1830-1831), is somewhat similar to the process of reaching the Hayflick limit by dividing cells of the body. After each wish is magically fulfilled, the shagreen skin shrinks, which is reminiscent of the process of shortening telomeres (after each cell division), which are located at the ends of the DNA molecule.

      In the novel: With each magical fulfillment of a wish, the shagreen skin contracts and consumes part of the protagonist's physical energy until he ceases to exist.

      In real life: Starting at a certain age (which depends on nutrition, ecology, genetics, speed and other characteristics of cellular metabolism, current state of physical health, lifestyle, psychological state, physical and creative activity), a person begins to show signs of aging as they approach the Hayflick limit, as a result of ongoing cell division, which is associated with the shortening of telomeres of DNA molecules.

      Surprisingly, cells of some living organisms can improve DNA repair and `blur` the Hayflick limit:

      4.2. What factors significantly complicate the artificial modeling of the neocortex?:

      4.2.1. Morphogenetic basis of brain function, not electronic, quantum or other.
      ((Hermann Haken described biological models of SYNERGETIC (SELF-ORGANIZING) ANALOGUE COMPUTERS)).
      Any fresh thought is a product of morphogenesis, formation of new neural connections (dendrites, synapses), ( axon).
      The brain is not programmed, but adapts to environmental conditions.
      That is, the fields and areas of the neocortex of the brain have a changeable, unstable, adaptive design - the structure of neural connections is formed (self-organizes) not according to a strictly defined program, but in accordance with the desired goal, which is formed by the process of thinking or spontaneously, when functioning according to ready-made algorithms and rest.

      `To figure it out` means to form such new synaptic connections between distant areas of the neocortex, in which very distant and different information is stored, that `insight` , `revelation`, `clarification`, `understanding of sense` can happen.
      A `brilliant` thought will not come so easily, it must be forced to `come`, those you have to live with this thought for a very long time to wait for the formation of new synaptic connections, and start the process of synergy (self-organization, synthesis).
      Then you will be able to see a new pattern where you have not seen it before.
      A computer does not have such morphogenetic features (in most cases, NN in AI systems use the principle of `universal data classifier`, for their further processing).
      No matter what a person does, new synaptic connections will still form randomly, but to direct their formation according to the rule of Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb in the right directions (orienting) is possible only with long-term mental activity in the chosen direction (of course, with breaks for rest and other activities)(this is the local adaptation of neural connections (synapses) to time-limited influence).

      The original formulation of Hebb's rule: «When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased».

      Hebb's rule shows the morphogenetic adaptation of both excitable cell A and excitable cell B, when cell B is excited by a nearby axon (this also applies to nearby dendrites) of cell A.

      This morphogenetic adaptation (some process of growth or metabolic changes in one or both cells (their membranes)) to excitation (a series of propagation of ACTION POTENTIALS along the membrane of an axon (dendrite)), with a high probability will lead to the formation of a new neural connection (synapse) between nearby areas of the membranes of cells A and B (this can be the morphogenesis of areas of membranes A and B: the body (soma), axon, dendrites).

      Thus, Hebb's rule is one of the cases of synergy (self-organization) of a neural connection (synapse), where the decisive factors for synergy are: a small distance between any areas of the membranes of the components of the 2 excitable cells, and, initially, the presence of excitation in one of the excitable cells.

      It is possible to designate the order parameters that contribute to such synergy (self-organization) of the neural connection (synapse) between the membrane sections of the components of excitable cells A and B, these are:
      ● Small distance between the membrane sections of the components of excitable cells A and B.
      ● Repeated electrical ACTION POTENTIALS on a nearby (to the membrane section of the component of excitable cell B) membrane section of the component of excitable cell A.

      If the distance between the sections of the membranes of the components of excitable cells A and B is small, then, upon depolarization of the section of the membrane of excitable cell A, outside a small section of its membrane, the local concentrations of positively charged potassium ions increase for the axon, and for dendrites - other ions (see below).
      This local concentration of positively charged ions outside, in the adjacent layer of the membrane of cells A and B, becomes the cause of depolarization of the section of the membrane of the component of excitable cell B, that is the reason for the appearance of an ACTION POTENTIAL on it - a `SPIKE`.

      Neurons perceive irritation (afferent, sensory, receptor, or centripetal neurons) and transmit excitation to muscles, skin, other tissues, organs (efferent, motor, motor, or centrifugal neurons).
     Nerve tissues ensure the coordinated functioning of the body.

      Excitable cells are considered to be:
      ● Nerve cell (conduction of excitation).
      ● Muscle tissue cells (contraction).
      ● Glandular tissue (secretion, exocrine glands).

      Excitation has been most fully studied in nerve and muscle cells, where it is accompanied by the emergence of an ACTION POTENTIAL (AP) - `SPIKE`, capable of spreading along the entire cell membrane without attenuation (decrementless).

      During intensive mental activity, in certain associative areas and morphofunctional fields of the neocortex, associated with the problem under consideration (where images with similar concepts, processes, experiences are encountered), blood flow increases, which affects the more intensive formation of synapses (synaptogenesis).
      At the same time, the limbic system can secrete various endogenous substances that have a positive or negative effect on the EMOTIONAL STATE of a person (through chemical modulation of ACTION POTENTIALS - `SPIKES`, in chemical synapses).

      During these processes of mental activity, various feelings (emotions) can arise and in certain areas of the brain, blood flow increases, which affects the more intensive formation of synapses (synaptogenesis).

      During moments of rest or brain work according to previously mastered algorithms, synapses are formed at a random moment in time, therefore, for example, if at this moment, the formation of synaptic connections, You saw an idiotic advertisement on TV, then you will remember it for the rest of your life (the advertisement will be `written` into long-term memory), and you will not be able to remember the information on studying a foreign language that was received before this moment.

      Neurons cannot be compared to `computer hardware` - a rigidly predetermined hardware part of a computer with the help of which information is processed.
      Neurons of certain morphofunctional fields of the neocortex generate thoughts, and these thoughts are associated with the formation of new neural (synaptic) connections (and the configuration of neural connections expresses a new unexpected thought or memorization of something).
      Each neuron is unique in its constantly changing distributed structure: different axon lengths, different numbers of dendrites, synapses and their different configurations, which determine the individual variability of the architecture and subcortical structures of the brain.

      A single neuron consists of parts: the cell body (soma), an axon with one or more synapses at the end, a tree-like branching network of dendrites, at the ends of which synapses (neural connections) can form.

      All these fragments of a single neuron have a COMMON MEMBRANE, which:

      ● unexcited local areas have an electrical RESTING POTENTIAL ;

      ● and when any sections of the membrane are excited, an electrical ACTION POTENTIAL (DEPOLARIZATION OF A SECTION OF THE MEMBRANE) appears on them, which spreads further along the membrane at a certain speed in one direction or another.

      In nervous tissue, an electrical action potential typically occurs during depolarization - if the depolarization of the neuron membrane reaches or exceeds a certain threshold level (electrical action potential), the cell is excited, and a wave of electrical signal propagates from its body to the axons and dendrites.

      Parameters of electrical ACTION POTENTIALS (`SPIKES`): amplitude, pulse repetition rate, pulse duration, pulse block duration, propagation velocity (determined by the type of ions involved in transmission, ion pumps, presence of nodes of Ranvier, ...).

      The magnitude of the ACTION POTENTIAL (AP) (`SPIKE`) fluctuates within 80–130 mV, the duration of the AP peak of a nerve fiber is 0.5–1 ms, skeletal muscle fibers – up to 10 ms, the duration of AP of the cardiac muscle is 300–400 ms. The action potential occurs when a threshold stimulus force is applied. The amplitude of the AP does not depend on the strength of the stimulus that causes it.

      ANALOG COMPUTING STRUCTURE OF EACH NEURON of the neocortex, includes:

      ● the common membrane of the BODY (SOMA) of the neuron;

      ● common membrane of the AXON (with nodes of Ranvier), which ends in one or more chemical synapses;

      ● a common membrane of a tree-like branching network of DENDRITES, many of which end in chemical synapses that can form or degrade;

      ● a common membrane of halves of chemical SYNAPSES, which are chemical modulators of the electrical ACTION POTENTIAL.
      Modulation of the electrical ACTION POTENTIAL (`SPIKE`) in the SYNAPSE mainly depends on the EMOTIONAL and PHYSIOLOGICAL (NORMAL or PATHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING OF PARTS OF THE ORGANISM) STATE of a person (determined by endogenous substances secreted by the limbic system and other parts of the body).
      (Exogenous substances entering the body from the outside, for example, with food, can also have an effect).

      ● a multitude of chemical SYNAPSES at the ends of DENDRITES, in addition to the function of chemical modulation of the signal - ACTION POTENTIAL, perform the functions of both input and output for electrical ACTION POTENTIALS from neighboring, or more distant NEURONS, as well as between their dendrites;

      ● For chemical TRANSMISSION and MODULATION of the signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL) from the presynaptic membrane to the postsynaptic membrane of the SYNAPSE, neurotransmitters (neuromediators) and neuromodulators.
      Some neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are produced in limbic system of the brain, the rest - in other parts of the body.
      The level of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the body is not stable, it constantly fluctuates depending on biorhythms, just like the hormonal level.
      Excitatory neurotransmitters, that is, those that are necessary for activating the body, usually have a high level in the morning.
      And, conversely, inhibitory neurotransmitters and neuromodulators reach their peak at night.
      An imbalance of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (psychosomatic disorders) may be associated with burnout syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome and mood changes, abdominal pain, headache, loss of concentration, the occurrence of Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis or Alzheimer's disease ...
      In order for the body to produce the required amount of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, it must have enough substances from which they are formed, and, also, the level of their production may depend on the EMOTIONAL STATE OF A PERSON, which, in turn, depends on endogenous substances secreted by the limbic system.
      Receptors for neurotransmitters (or neuromodulators) are protein complexes located on the cell membrane.
      The receptor and neurotransmitter (or neuromodulator) interact like a key and a lock, or like puzzle pieces, and this triggers a signaling cascade - the cell (neuron) `understands` what it was told.
      Narcotic substances, caffeine, and alcohol can also attach to neurotransmitter receptors (this is a clarification for understanding the development of negative addictions).
      Then the neurotransmitters are destroyed by enzymes or absorbed by neurons - these processes control the duration of the signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL) transmitted to the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite (which is a section of the general membrane of the neuron).
      It is these processes that some pharmacological drugs act to treat, for example, depression.
      For example, classic antidepressants are inhibitors of the reuptake of the neurotransmitter - serotonin.
      They do not allow serotonin (neurotransmitter) to quickly disappear from the place of contact, prolonging its effect on neurons.

      ● the chemical SYNAPSE (SYNAPSES) at the end of the AXON, in addition to the function of chemical modulation of the signal - ACTION POTENTIAL, is an output for the electrical ACTION POTENTIAL to distant innervated organs or other nerve cells (for example, to a neuron in another morphofunctional field of the neocortex), and, also, the structure of the AXON SYNAPSE can act as an input for the signal, since it allows the signal - ACTION POTENTIAL to be transmitted, and, in the opposite direction (retrograde propagation), if for some reason it appears on the AXON SYNAPSE (SYNAPSES);

      ● the potential of a small section of the common membrane can change under the influence of various stimuli:
      - an artificial stimulus can be an electric current supplied to the outer or inner side of the membrane through an electrode;
      - in natural conditions, a stimulus is often a chemical signal from neighboring cells entering through a synapse;
      - or by diffuse transmission of a chemical signal through the intercellular environment;
      (the shift of the membrane potential can occur in the negative (hyperpolarization) or positive (depolarization) side);

      ● the total charge on the inner side of the common membrane section is significantly less than on the outer side, although both sides contain cations and anions:
      - outside - an order of magnitude more ions of SODIUM, calcium and chlorine;
      - inside - ions of POTASSIUM and negatively charged protein molecules, amino acids, organic acids, phosphates, sulfates.
      (It should be understood that we are talking specifically about the charge of the membrane surface - in general, the environment both inside and outside the cell is neutrally charged, and the membrane RESTING POTENTIAL has a negative value (about -70 - -90 mV).)
      (It should be noted that these studies relate to a greater extent to the AXON, since its transverse diameter is much larger than that of the dendrites, which made it possible to study its parameters in easier ways, and Features of the DENDRITIC ACTION POTENTIAL (DENDRITIC `SPICE`), see below.);

      ● when a small section of the common membrane is excited, it is depolarized, and if a certain threshold level is reached or exceeded, then:

      - INSIDE a small section of the common membrane, local concentrations of positively charged SODIUM ions increase;
      (membrane depolarization primarily causes the opening of potential-dependent sodium channels, when enough sodium channels open at the same time, positively charged sodium ions rush through them to the inner side of the membrane);

      - OUTSIDE a small area of the common membrane, local concentrations of positively charged POTASSIUM ions increase;
      (there are four main classes potassium channels :
      - calcium-activated potassium channels - open in response to the presence of calcium ions or other signaling molecules;
      - inwardly rectifying potassium channels - allow potassium ions to enter the cell;
      - two-pore potassium channel - these are permanently open or constitutively present channels in the membrane, such as resting channels or leaky channels, establishing a negative membrane potential at neuron;
      - potential-dependent potassium channels - open in response to a change in transmembrane potential);

      ● further, distribution occurs nerve impulse - ACTION POTENTIAL along the common membrane;

      ● refractory period ;
     (In electrophysiology, the refractory period (refractory period) is the period of time after the occurrence of an ACTION POTENTIAL on an excitable membrane, during which the excitability of the membrane decreases and then gradually returns to its original level.)

       ● features of the dendritic network - dendritic action potential ;
      Three main types of dendritic `spikes` (propagating along the membrane of the dendrite ACTION POTENTIALS), according to the class of active conductors underlying them:
      - Na(+) (plateau-`spikes`);
      - Ca(2+) (plateau-`spikes`);
      - N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA-`spikes`).

      Although different electrical properties, channel types and diversity of dendritic morphology give rise to different dendritic ACTION POTENTIALS, with different rise times and durations, dendritic `spikes` have properties characteristic of classical (axon) ACTION POTENTIALS:
      - they have an excitation threshold;
      - a refractory period;
      - actively propagate over a certain distance.

      A dendritic `spike` is a nonlinear phenomenon that can overcome the influence of other synapses and prevent the integration of additional input synaptic impulses, appearing as a result of local summation of synchronized clusters of input signals to the dendrite.
      Dendritic `spikes` are usually much slower than axonal ACTION POTENTIALS, and are generated either in isolation from the soma (local `spikes`), or coinciding with axonal backpropagation action potentials.
      If a dendritic `spike` is strong enough, it can propagate to the neuron's soma and lead to the generation of a somato-axon action potential, or even bursts of action potentials (several `spikes`).

      The existence of dendritic `spikes` significantly increases the repertoire of computational functions of the general membrane of a neuron, making it possible:
      - functional associations of local input signals;
      - amplification remote synaptic impulses that otherwise could not have an effect on the somatic potential;
      - influence stimulation of synaptic plasticity.

      ● Ion channels cell membrane of all living cells.
      Ion channels are pore-forming proteins (single or entire complexes) that maintain the potential difference that exists between the outer and inner sides of the cell membrane of all living cells.
      They are classified as transport proteins. With their help, ions move along their electrochemical gradients across the membrane.
      Ions of Na(+) (sodium), K(+) (potassium), Cl(−) (chlorine) and Ca(2+) (calcium) pass through the ion channels.
      Due to the opening and closing of the ion channels, the concentration of ions on different sides of the membrane changes and the membrane potential shifts.

      ● Ionic pumps cell membranes of all living cells.
      Ionic pumps are integral proteins that provide active transport of ions against the concentration gradient .
      The energy for transport is the energy of ATP hydrolysis.
      There are:
      - Na(+) / K(+) pump (pumps Na(+) out of the cell in exchange for K(+)).
      - Ca(2+) pump (pumps Ca(2+) out of the cell).
      - Cl(–) pump (pumps Cl(–) out of the cell).


      Thus, ANALOG COMPUTING STRUCTURE OF EACH NEURON is
      part of a SPATIALLY DISTRIBUTED ANALOG PROCESSOR WITH:

      - THE BODY (SOMA) OF THE NEURON;

      - AXON (ENDING WITH A CHEMICAL SYNAPSE (SYNAPSES));

      - A UNIQUE, CONSTANTLY CHANGING CONFIGURATION OF A TREE-LIKE BRANCHING NETWORK OF DENDRITES, MANY OF WHICH END WITH FORMED CHEMICAL SYNAPSE.

      The functions of such an analog processor include: propagation / chemical modulation / summation / subtraction / division / of signals (electric ACTION POTENTIALS), a set of which, simultaneously can spread in any of the possible directions in AREAS OF THE COMMON MEMBRANE OF THE NETWORK OF DENDRITES, SYNAPSES, THE BODY (SOMA) OF A NEURON, AXON.

      Many intermediate results of calculations of the analog values of the parameters of electrical ACTION POTENTIALS (`spikes`) on the membranes of dendrites of a single neuron can be both transmitted (and modulated) and received (and modulated) through chemical synapses at the endings of dendrites to the membranes of the network of dendrites of surrounding neurons in the association areas and morphofunctional fields of the neocortex.

      The final, integrated result of calculating the analog values of the parameters of the electrical ACTION POTENTIAL (`spike`) on the membrane of a single neuron is transmitted (and modulated) through a chemical synapse (synapses) at the ending of the axon to distant innervated neurons organs or other nerve cells (for example, to the membrane of a neuron in another morphofunctional field or to the membrane of a neuron in the association area of the neocortex).





     If, to consider in more detail the features of functioning:
ARTIFICIALLY CREATED ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINES

, then, it can be noted that the problem to be solved (class of problems):
RIGIDLY determined by the internal structure of the ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINE and the settings made (connections, installed modules, valves, etc.).

     Even for universal ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINES, when solving a new problem, it is necessary to MANUALLY RECONSTRUCTE the internal structure of the device.

     Also, (unlike digital computers), a feature of the ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINE is the absence of a stored program, under the control of which a variety of problems can be solved using the same computer.
     The program of calculations (actions) of the ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINE is RIGIDLY determined by the configuration of the internal device of the ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINE and the settings made (connections, installed modules, valves, etc.).

     Differences in the functioning of the neuron of the neocortex from artificially created ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINES:
THE NEOCORTEX NEURON IS AN ANALOG PROCESSOR WITH A UNIQUE, CONSTANTLY CHANGING TREE CONFIGURATION A BRANCHING NETWORK OF DENDRITES, MANY OF WHICH END IN FORMED CHEMICAL SYNAPSES.

     RECONSTRUCTION OF THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A NEURON is carried out by changing (reconnecting) or creating new neural connections (SYNAPSES) spontaneously, or under the influence of training and other factors (according to Hebb's rule), which, flexibly and adaptively, `adapts` the internal structure of the ANALOG PROCESSOR (NEURON) to the possibility of `PERCEIVE` / `LEARNING` / `MODELING` / `ANALYSIS` / `ADAPTATION` to a NEW SITUATION -
     CHANGES THE COMPUTATIONAL ALGORITHM (PROGRAM) of a single NEURON.

      Thus, analog computation programs (while awake, in a given period of time) are synthesized in each neuron (by changing the cytoarchitecture of the cell), and, in general - when mastering new skills or thinking, in the involved specific morphofunctional fields and associative areas of the neocortex.

     (An extremely high degree of adaptation of the human brain and body to new situations, compared to other animals, life in society, division of labor - are an evolutionary advantage that allowed humans to settle all over the planet, despite various, in some places, unfavorable natural conditions and threats from the animal world. And, also, to master the depths of the oceans, the peaks of the highest mountains, rise to great heights in the atmosphere and exist in space outside the earth's atmosphere).



     That is, the program (operating algorithm) of this analog processor is `composed`, `created`, `corrected`, `optimized` in real time (`on the fly`), which is caused by the changeable configuration of reconnected and newly created neural connections (SYNAPSES).

     Or, in other words, any change in the configuration (architecture, cytoarchitecture) of neural connections (SYNAPSES) of a single neuron changes the PROGRAM (OPERATING ALGORITHM) of this single ANALOG PROCESSOR (neuron).

     Commutation (switching) new neural connections (changing the cytoarchitecture of a neuron) - leads to a change in the program of operation of the neural structure of an analog computer according to new algorithms, and these processes are characterized by conscious activity (when `consciousness` is active, which occurs in the waking state).
     These states are associated with the emergence of new neural connections (synapses), both spontaneously (at the moments of work according to mastered deterministic algorithms (deduction)), and, with the emergence of `fresh thoughts` (intensive thinking (induction), followed by synergy).

     Decommutation of neural connections (change in neuron cytoarchitecture) - leads to a change in the operating program of the neural structure of the analog computer, eliminating rarely used algorithms, and these processes are characterized by a complete shutdown of consciousness, there is even no sensitivity to smells (and they occur in the phases of slow sleep).
     These conditions are associated with the degradation of rarely used neural connections (synapses), and the removal of accumulated chemical reaction waste by the glial system (metabolism products).
     The calculated signals from the common membranes of the tree-like branching network of dendrites (`spikes` - electrical ACTION POTENTIALS on the membrane) arrive at the common membrane of the body (soma) of the neuron, which can be connected through chemical synapses (signal modulators that act as inputs or outputs for `spikes`) with other neurons and with their own dendrites.

     And, this integrated signal (`spike`), then, spreads along the common membrane of the body (soma) of the neuron to the common membrane of the axon with the nodes of Ranvier, through a chemical synapse (synapses), to distant innervated organs or other nerve cells (for example, to the membrane of a neuron in another morphofunctional field or to the membrane of a neuron in the associative region of the neocortex).

     This, for example, leads to the contraction of certain muscles of the body with the necessary (calculated amplitude of each `spike`) force and a certain number of times (calculated number of impulses and repetition frequency - `spikes`). (For example, muscles of the arms, fingers, legs, feet, trunk, neck, larynx, eyes, face, ears, etc.).

     Also, the calculated integrated `spikes` from the membrane of the body (soma) of a neuron, along the membrane of the axon with the nodes of Ranvier, through a chemical synapse (synapses), can spread to the membrane of a neuron in another morphofunctional field or to the membrane of a neuron in the associative region of the neocortex, and, there, be `processed`, `corrected`, `compared`, `influence the calculations` of other `spikes`, `remain` in the part of short-term associative memory, `copied` into the part of long-term associative memory (hippocampus), ..., spread further, ...

     It should be noted that during periods of relaxed wakefulness, or existence according to ready-made, well-established algorithms (programs, `templates`, `automatically` (deductive logical inference - application of an already known `general regularities` to a `special` case)):
     biological (instinctive-hormonal), industrial, sports, psychological, ideological, social, religious, combining ready-made solutions, with `rational thinking` almost turned off ..., when there is no need to invent something new, the growth of `dendritic trees` in neurons in the neocortex occurs spontaneously, and the formation of neural connections (SYNAPSES), in this case, also occurs spontaneously (morphogenesis).

     If, however, a person is intensively trying to create something new (or to rediscover something that has already been created, but unknown to him), which has not yet existed in society or in nature
     (inductive logical inference (induction) - generalization of a `special` case to a new `general pattern`)):

     ● Reflects on a problem, ... (for example, develops new principles of operation of devices in engineering; puts forward, works out, proves hypotheses in science; ...).

     ● Composes literary works - prose, poetry, ...

     ● Composes musical works, develops and works out scenarios for roles-reincarnations in theatrical productions, ...

     ● Studies foreign languages.

     ● Creates works of fine art, calligraphy, sculpture, decorative and applied art, industrial design, architecture, ...

     ● Engaged in physical activities related to the development and implementation of NEW complex biomechanical movements that are associated with the intensive work of the sensory and motor morphofunctional fields of the neocortex: choreography, ballet, dance, gymnastics, acrobatics, some other sports, ...

     ● Creates or solves puzzles that use operations with visual images that require concentration and attention, develops new strategies for playing chess, checkers, backgammon, poker, ..., develops new mathematical concepts,

then, in the neurons of the morphofunctional fields of the neocortex involved in the work and in certain parts of the associative areas of the neocortex (already containing some preliminary knowledge about the concepts and processes associated with the problem under consideration),
blood circulation increases.

     As a result, to the neurons in these parts, through the auxiliary cells of the nervous tissue - neuroglia, more oxygen is supplied
(oxygen consumption by the entire brain can reach up to 30% of the total consumption by the body),
as well as nutrients
(`building materials` that are necessary for the formation of new neural connections (DENDRITES and SYNAPSES)
- proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, water, electrolytes (minerals), ...).

     These factors allow for more intensive formation of neural connections (SYNAPSES) in these areas, according to the rule of Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb (1949, book The Organization of Behavior - `neurons that fire together, communicate with each other`).

     And, during periods of rest, from such mental efforts (although the internal work of finding a solution to the problem partially and imperceptibly continues in the `background`), spontaneous neural connections (SYNAPSES) with distant neurons (implementation of the principle of `arbitrary thinking`) can appear, which do not necessarily contain any preliminary images of knowledge associated with the problem being solved, but contain images of knowledge from completely different areas (and, then, a similar, analogous principle of solving a problem from a completely different area of knowledge can potentially appear).

     Next, the synergetic principle will work, self-organization of neural connections (SYNAPSES) occurs to their level suitable for new functioning, due to the increase in the value of the order parameters to a critical value (their generalization, integration, multiplication).

     Thus, part of the set of elements (SYNAPSES) moves from the area of greater scale to the quality of neural connections (SYNAPSES), to the area of greater functionality, which allows you to find or `calculate` a solution to the problem.

     It is important to understand the features of the propagation of many multidirectional electrical ACTION POTENTIALS along the common membrane in parts of a neuron (and this is the body (soma), axon, networks of dendrites, many synapses at the ends of most dendrites):

     ● The cell membrane of all living cells contains ion channels that selectively pass certain ions and are vaguely reminiscent of semiconductors.

     ● A chemical synapse is a chemical transmission link and a chemical modulator of a signal (electric ACTION POTENTIAL on a section of the membrane at any part of the neuron), which `arrives` to the presynaptic membrane from the membrane of the `input` dendrite (or axon) and spreads further from the postsynaptic membrane of the synapse, along the membrane of the `output` dendrite (or other part of the neuron).
     (The concepts of `input` dendrite and `output` dendrite are conditional, since their roles can change, in another situation, to the opposite).

     ● Modulation of the signal (electric ACTION POTENTIAL on a section of the membrane near some part of the neuron) can be a change in the values of its parameters: decrease in amplitude / increase in amplitude / decrease in the pulse repetition rate ...

     ● For chemical transmission and modulation of a signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL on a membrane section near any part of a neuron), neurotransmitters (neuromediators) and neuromodulators (which differ in both types and quantity) are released into the synaptic cleft from synaptic vesicles (small bubble containers).

     ● A chemical synapse can transmit a signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL on a membrane section near any part of a neuron), with its intermediate chemical modulation, equally in both directions.

     ● A dendrite (or axon) can transmit a signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL on a membrane section near some part of a neuron), equally in both directions.

     ● If 2 signals (electrical ACTION POTENTIALS on membrane sections near some parts of a neuron) arrive simultaneously from both sides at a chemical synapse (on its two membranes), then a greater, but also indefinite amount (and types) of neurotransmitters (neuromediators) and neuromodulators will be released from synaptic vesicles from both parts of the synapse membranes, which may affect the alignment parameters of 2 signals `leaving` the synapse along the membranes of opposite dendrites.


     At each moment in time, on the membrane of the body (soma) of the neuron cell, a certain ACTION POTENTIAL may be present, which then spreads along the axon to innervated organs or other nerve cells (for example, to a neuron in another morphofunctional field of the neocortex).

     If an axon in nervous tissue connects with:

     ● the body of the next nerve cell, such contact is called axo-somatic;
     ● with dendrites, such contact is called axo-dendritic;
     ● with another axon, such contact is called axo-axonal (a rare type of connection, found in the central nervous system).

     The terminal sections of the axon — the terminals — branch and contact other nerve, muscle, or glandular cells. At the end of the axon there are one or more synaptic endings — the terminal section of the terminal that contacts the target cell. Together with the postsynaptic membrane of the target cell, the synaptic ending forms a synapse. Excitation is transmitted through synapses.

      It is also worth noting that each neuron always has a moment of uncertainty in its state, associated with the random formation of several new neural connections or the degradation of several old neural connections during the day, which can contribute, in certain fields of the neocortex, to `arbitrary thinking` (stochastic, probabilistic, random), and also to implement the concept of indeterminism (incompatibilist theories) - `Free Will`.



      It is necessary to understand that a neuron can have several primary dendrites (which are divided into secondary ones, and, further, many more divisions occur) and usually only one axon.

      Axon is a process of a neuron that transmits an impulse through itself (membrane action potential (to accelerate transmission, `Nodes of Ranvier` are used)), which spreads from the body (soma) of the neuron cell to another neuron. (The length of the axon of the human peripheral nervous system can exceed 1 m, and can be even longer in large animals).

      In addition, axons perform a transport role - this is the movement of various biological material along the axon of a nerve cell ( Axonal transport - many neurodegenerative diseases are directly related to disturbances in the functioning of this system).

      Dendrites (primary, secondary, ...) are receiving processes, they collect impulses from other neurons and transmit them to the body (soma) of the neuron (although in reality some dendrites conduct a signal in two directions, to the body and from the body of the neuron).

      Moreover, one single dendrite receives signals from many neurons, from hundreds to thousands.

      A portion of free dendrites that have not yet formed synaptic connections, during periods of wakefulness, are constantly in a state of growth and connection-formation of new synapses.

      One neuron can have connections with many (according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/ - from 100,000 to 1,000,000) other neurons through synapses, since a relatively small number of primary dendrites branches into many secondary dendrites, which in turn, also branch further and further.

      Dendrites divide dichotomous , axons give collaterals.

      Mitochondria are usually concentrated in branching nodes.

      In various areas of the membranes of the branched network of dendrites (also applies to the membrane of the body (soma) of the neuron), the membrane resting potentials are constantly changing due to the appearance of membrane action potentials (`spikes` - the physiological basis of the nerve impulse, `spikes` are the mechanism that allow neurons to pass information over relatively long distances within themselves), which are caused by (for simplicity, usually a `spike` on the axon membrane is considered; for dendrites the variety of ions involved is wider):

      ● local concentrations of positively charged potassium ions (inside the dendrite membrane at rest, and outside the membrane dendrite in the state of propagation of a nerve impulse);

      ● local concentrations of positively charged sodium ions (outside the dendrite membrane in the resting state, and inside the dendrite membrane in the state of propagation of a nerve impulse).

      Positively charged potassium and sodium ions have different electrical potentials, which creates a potential difference on the cell membrane (like in capacitors), and it is approximately 70 mV or 0.07 V.

      The resting membrane potential is a deficit of positive charges inside the cell, which occurs due to the work of sodium-potassium pump (or other ion pumps) and (to a greater extent) the subsequent leakage of positive potassium ions from the cell.

      A `spike` is a wave of excitation moving along the membrane of a living cell in the form of a short-term change in the membrane potential in a small area of the excitable cell (and changes in the membrane potential occur due to changes in the concentration of potassium and sodium ions (and for dendrites and other ions, see above) inside and outside the cell membrane (dendrite or neuron body (soma)).

      A `spike` on the membrane of each dendrite can have, depending on its chemical generation in the synapse and its intersection with other `spikes` during propagation on the membranes of dendrites, different action potentials (they can be strengthened or weakened, depending on the local concentration of potassium and sodium ions (and for dendrites and other ions, see above) on both sides of the membrane of the dendrite).

      A `spike` on the membrane of each dendrite can propagate in different directions:

      ● from the synapse to the membrane of the body (soma) of the neuron through the membranes of the dendritic branches of secondary and primary dendrites;

      ● from a synapse to other synapses, through the membranes of multiple dendritic branches of secondary dendrites;

      ● from the membrane of the neuron body (soma) to synapses, through the membranes of dendritic primary and secondary dendrites;

      ● from the neuron membrane along the axon with By the nodes of Ranvier;

      ● to the membrane of the dendrite, through the membranes of the dendritic secondary dendrites from the membranes of other dendrites;

      ● in some secondary dendritic branching dendrites, meet with a passing `spike`, merge and mutually strengthen, double (integration, summation), and if, then, a dendritic branch of the dendrite is encountered, then the doubled `spike` again splits into two weakened single `spike`;

      ● in some secondary tree-branching dendrites meet with a counter `spike`, merge, strengthen (overlap, interference) in the area of the meeting and diverge each in its own direction, and if at the meeting place of `spikes` there is a tree-like branch of the dendrite, then from two counter `spikes` 3 `spikes` can be obtained, but weakened, then spreading along their dendritic membranes.

      All this diversity of variants of transmission of `spikes` (`walking`, propagation of `spike` potentials along the membranes of dendrites, synapses, neurons), having direct or reverse (retrograde) propagation on the membranes of dendrites (although they, in fact, are also part of the membrane of the neuron, only elongated in space and branched), synapses, determines the generalized electrical potential of action on the membrane of the neuron, transmitted to the membrane of the axon with its further propagation.

      Thus:

      ● The membrane electrical action potential of a neuron (`spike`), which is proportional to the concentration of potassium and sodium ions (for dendrites and other ions) inside and outside the cell membrane, is summed up / subtracted / or divided from the `incoming` and `outgoing` `spikes` on the membranes of several primary dendrites, as well as the `outgoing` `spike` on the axon membrane (upon reaching the threshold potential value).

      ● The membrane electrical action potential of a neuron (`spike`), which is proportional to the concentration of potassium and sodium ions (for dendrites and other ions) inside and outside the cell membrane for primary, secondary, ... dendrites is summed up / subtracted / or divided from the `incoming` and `outgoing` `spikes` on the membranes of the dendrites and synapses connected to them (the threshold value of the potential, in such a process, is important).

      ● In a chemical synapse, a nerve impulse is transmitted chemically through neurotransmitters (neuromediators) and neuromodulators, which excite the membrane electrical action potential on the postsynaptic membrane (during synaptic transmission, the amplitude and frequency of the signal are modulated).
      If, in the process of neurotransmission, a `spike` arrives from a dendrite (nerve ending) to the presynaptic membrane of a chemical synapse, then from the synaptic vesicles (small vesicles-containers) neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (which differ in both types and quantity) are released.
      Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are released from synaptic vesicles of the presynaptic membrane of the dendrite, in response to the appearance of an action potential on the membrane of the dendrite (depolarization of its membrane), diffuse through the synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptors, causing changes in the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite (depolarization of its membrane).
      As a result, the membrane electrical action potential on the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite, and it is proportional to the concentration of potassium and sodium ions inside and outside the cell membrane (which is ensured by the operation of ion pumps on the membrane), grows and spreads along the dendrite membrane in the form of `spike`.

      ● To these `calculations` (analog summed up / subtracted / or divided) of local membrane electrical action potentials (`spikes`), uncertainty (an element of chance) is added in the dynamic cytoarchitectonics of neural connections:
      - due to the formation of many new synapses (in the process of thinking, according to Hebb's rule - approximately 30-40 synapses for each neuron per day);
      - or destruction, disconnection, degradation, approximately 3-4 rarely used synapses for each neuron per day
(in slow phases of sleep - during the night there is a change of 4-5 cycles of slow phases of sleep, 1.5-2 hours each, and between them the phases of rapid sleep for 5-10 minutes).
      (The latest research proves that dreams also occur during slow sleep. But these dreams are shorter and less emotional. All people are able to see dreams, but they cannot always remember them after waking up).

      A team of scientists from New York University (USA) has found the "molecular glue" responsible for maintaining long-term memory.
      Memories are formed when groups of neurons in the hippocampus activate in response to a specific experience.
      Every time we remember these events, the same set of cells are activated.
      When one neuron repeatedly activates another, the connection between them is strengthened.
      This is how short-term memory gradually turns into long-term memory.

      To preserve long-term memories, brain cells produce proteins that strengthen neural connections (synapses).
      One of the most important proteins is the enzyme protein kinase Mzeta (PKMz) , which is constantly produced by neurons.
      This enzyme is attracted to strong synapses by the KIBRA molecule , which acts as a "molecular glue."
      It also calls new PKMz to replace the enzyme when it is destroyed.

      Previous studies in humans have shown that different versions of this molecule are associated with differences in memory performance.
      KIBRA was also known to interact with PKMz in the hippocampus of mice.
      A team of scientists from New York University (USA) studied this mechanism deeper...

      KIBRA is a synaptic scaffold protein that regulates learning and memory.
      Alterations in the WWC1 gene, which encodes KIBRA, cause a variety of neuronal disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and Tourette's syndrome.
      However, the molecular mechanism underlying KIBRA's function in neurons continues to be studied...




      In areas of the neocortex associated with hearing, the frequency of impulses between neurons reaches 200 impulses per second.
      In other morphofunctional fields of the neocortex, the frequency of impulses between neurons can be much lower, especially through axons that form extended connections with relatively distant areas.
      The speed of movement of a nerve impulse along a slow fiber is limited to approximately two meters per second, while along a fast fiber the signal accelerates to 120 meters per second (on average - from 20 to 70 m/s).
      This property is associated with the insulating winding of the nerve by another type of nervous system cell - oligodendrocytes or Schwann cells (Ranvier interceptions, see above).

      At each moment in time, some of the potentially possible neural connections in the morphofunctional fields and associative zones of the neocortex do not always have deterministic states, since these neural connections are possible:
         - have not yet been formed;
         - are in the process of connecting or reconnecting;
         - are connected and functioning (but, modulation of chemical signals through an undefined qualitative and quantitative composition of neurotransmitter and neuromodulator complexes, inside synaptic clefts - non-deterministic);
         - are already performing the degradation process.

      From this it follows that neural connections in the fields of the neocortex are formed and destroyed according to the principles of a changing, open architecture, and their work cannot be equated to the work of neural connections in a rigidly defined architecture of existing models of NN AI.

      (In some way, these principles of a changeable, dynamic, natural and unfinished architecture of neural connections resemble the architectural style of Antonio Gaudi).

      Thus, in the case of solving a truly new problem, the brain does not work according to already mastered algorithms, but `invents` new algorithms `on the fly`, in the process of thinking.
`Technically`, at some point in time, biological synergy (self-organization) of neural connections (synapses) occurs, which are formed during the growth of new dendrites from neurons or from other dendrites (according to Hebb's rule (see below) or at least a process associated with it).

      The process of solving a new complex scientific problem does not happen in an instant, and thoughts related to the awareness of the relationships of `entities` in this problem can `circulate` in the neocortex for a long time, `growing` certain new neural connections (dentrites and synapses) in it.

      When thinking intensively about a problem, blood circulation increases in certain parts of the associative areas of the neocortex (which already contain some preliminary knowledge about the concepts and processes associated with the problem under consideration), and more oxygen is supplied to the neurons in these parts (oxygen consumption by the entire brain can reach up to 30% of the body's total consumption), as well as nutrients (`building materials` that are necessary for the formation of new neural connections (dendrites and synapses) - proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, water, electrolytes (minerals), ...).

      Speed synaptogenesis it is impossible to increase, you can only increase local blood flow if you think about a specific problem, which leads to more intense synaptogenesis in this local area.

      These factors allow for more intensive formation of neural connections (SYNAPSES) in these areas, according to the rule of Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb (1949, book The Organization of Behavior - `neurons that fire together, communicate with each other`).

      These can be neural connections (SYNAPSES) and with distant neurons that do not necessarily contain any prior knowledge related to the problem being solved, but contain knowledge from completely different areas (a similar, analogous solution principle may potentially manifest itself).

      Next, the synergetic principle will work, self-organization of neural connections to their level suitable for new functioning occurs, due to an increase in the value of order parameters to a critical value (their generalization, integration, multiplication), and, a person has an `insight`, `revelation`, `clarification`, `understanding of the sense`, a solution to the problem.

      Thus, surprisingly, physiological processes in the brain are associated with solving abstract intellectual problems (or, for example, problems of coordinating new movements in the motor areas of the brain).

      When a «critical quantity» of new neural connections arises, they are formed according to Hebb’s rule or at least associated with it (this process resembles the physical process of the emergence of a chain reaction in a fissionable substance, for which a «critical mass» of this substance is necessary), an understanding, an `epiphany`, an insight, an `eureka` occurs in the researcher, thus a transition from quantity (part of the set of elements moves from an area of greater scale) to quality (to an area of greater functionality) of neural connections, which allows one to find a solution to the problem, it`s like - `The puzzle is complete!`.

      Transformation of Quantitative Into Qualitative Changes.

      More precisely, the transition from an increased number of neural connections to their functional quality is described using the principles of synergetics (self-organization), in the book by Hermann Haken (see links below, 353 pages, fundamental work of 1996, a lot of mathematics, models of biological SYNERGETIC (SELF-ORGANIZING) ANALOGUE COMPUTERS are considered!!! , against existing deterministic models).
      Below are some excerpts from Hermann Haken's book that can give a general idea of the synergistic processes occurring in certain fields of the neocortex of the brain of animals and humans:
      ... One of the most striking features of self-organizing systems is their ability to form spatio-temporal structures.
      Since we consider the brain as self-organizing system that produces spatio-temporal patterns of activity, it is desirable to analyze the mechanisms of formation of these patterns from a general point of view. ...
      ... The basic principle of synergetics is the coordinated action or cooperation of parts of the system. ...
      ... The spontaneous formation of structures, as a result of self-organization, seems to contradict the second law of thermodynamics.
      (According to the second law, in so-called closed systems, macroscopic order should disappear, giving way to a homogeneous state, which at the microscopic level reveals the structure of chaotic motion).
      However, this statement is true only for closed systems that do not exchange energy or matter with the environment.
      However, biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy noted that biological systems belong to the class of open systems, whose structures and functions are maintained by the flow of energy and matter, either in the form of sunlight and substances extracted from the soil, as in plants, or in the form of nutrients and oxygen, as in animals.
      To denote this state of living matter, Ludwig von Bertalanffy proposed the term Fliessgleichgewicht (current equilibrium).
      All systems studied in synergetics can be considered as open, thereby satisfying the condition of self-organization.
      ... Near the points of loss of stability, the behavior of complex open systems is controlled by a small number of variables, namely: order parameters. ...
      ... In the synergetic model, at the level of neurons, the learning process changes the control parameters at the microscopic level.
      The control parameters are the intensities of synaptic connections, and the learning rule is identical to Hebb's rule or at least related to it.
      The emerging new dynamics generates completely new order parameters that define new, quite distinguishable patterns (templates), which determine, for example, a new type of decision-making, behavior or recognition of external signals by any sensory organs of the studied individual or human personality. ...
      ... If we compare such simple synergetic physical phenomena as thermal convection in liquid, coherent laser radiation and the like, with the complex activity of the human brain, we can find that all these systems have one common property: they have the ability to generate synergetic (self-organizing) phenomena that are distinguished by high coherence in space and time. ...

      Principles of Brain Functioning. A Synergetic Approach to Brain Activity... (Hermann Haken) Springer
      Principles of Brain Functioning. A Synergetic Approach to Brain Activity... (Hermann Haken) Amazon

      The rule of Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb (1949, book The Organization of Behavior) is `neurons that fire together, wire together`.

      Hopfield's network model (1982) , uses the same learning rule as Hebb's learning rule (1949), which characterizes learning as the result of reinforcement coefficients of statistical weights in cases of neural activity.

      The Hopfield network is a model for human associative learning and recall (the Hopfield model of associative memory).

      As the name suggests, the main goal of associative memory networks is to associate an input with the most similar example. In other words, the goal is to store and retrieve images.

      A Hopfield network (or associative memory) is a form of recurrent neural network , (or spin glass system), which can serve as content-addressable memory.

      For Hopfield networks , the Hebbian learning rule is used, which was introduced to explain "associative learning," in which the simultaneous activation of neuronal cells leads to a marked increase in the synaptic strength between these cells (this is their local adaptation to time-limited influence).

       Hebb's learning rule: "The simultaneous activation of neuronal cells results in a marked increase in the synaptic strength between these cells."

      Hebb's learning rule, in general: "Neurons that fire together wire together. Neurons that fire out of sync fail to communicate."
      Neurons "attract or repel each other" in state space.

      If the bits corresponding to 2 neurons in the Hopfield network are the same according to a given pattern, then this will have a positive effect on their statistical weight coefficients.
      The opposite happens if the bits corresponding to these 2 neurons are are different.

      J. Hopfield showed that a neural network with feedback connections can be an energy-minimizing system (Hopfield network).
      Learning a Hopfield network involves reducing the energy of the states that the network must "remember" .
      This allows the network to serve as a content-addressable memory system, i.e. the network will converge to a "remembered" state if given only part of the state.

      There are two types of Hopfield networks - discrete and continuous. Discrete network is classified as binary and bipolar network based on the output signal obtained.

      Surprisingly simple model explains how brain cells organize and connect.
      Stanford study reveals growing neurons gain an edge by making connections.
      Artificial Neural Nets Finally Yield Clues to How Brains Learn.

       Holism, synergy (systemic effect), emergence, superadditive effect natural or artificial (organic or inorganic) chaotic sets of elements, may accidentally lead to the emergence of complex ordered structures consisting of these same elements.

      The words `synergy` and `synergetic` have been used in the field of physiology since at least the mid-19th century ( Robley Dunglison, , `Medical Lexicon`, 1853).
      In 1896 Henri Mazelle , applied the term `synergy` to social psychology, writing `La synergie sociale`, in which he argued that Darwinian theory failed to explain `social synergy` or `social love`, the collective evolutionary drive.
      In 1909, Lester Frank Ward , defined SYNERGY as a universal constructive principle of nature!!!.

      4.2.2. A large number of simultaneously operating complex functions generated by morphofunctional fields and subfields of the neocortex.

      4.2.3. The continuous variability of this multitude of complex neocortical functions during the life of an individual (hypothesis of synaptic homeostasis : during wakefulness, each neuron forms new synapses (3-4 pcs. if spontaneously or 30-40 pcs. according to Hebb's rule, when a person thinks hard about something, then blood flow increases in certain areas of the neocortex), and during sleep, each neuron's unnecessary synapses (3-4 pcs.) are destroyed), caused by continuous configuration (architecture) changes of a huge set of neural connections (constant `retraining` of the neocortex fields, which is not implemented in artificial neural networks).
      (At first, when a child is born, each neuron in the neocortex has approximately 2 connections, and then, as the child learns about the world around them, their number quickly increases.
      In children, per day, one neuron in the areas of the neocortex involved in learning can form approximately 50-100 new neural connections according to Hebb's rule (during the first 2 years of life, up to 700 new neural connections are formed every second), and in adults, per day, one neuron in the areas of the neocortex involved in learning can form approximately - 30-40 connections (in the `resting` areas, 3-4 neural connections spontaneously).
      The child first thinks in images, and as he masters speech, he begins to think in words).

      4.2.4. Transfer of functions (morphofunctional) fields and subfields (responsible for specific functions) of the neocortex during the life of an individual to other fields, in case of damage.

      4.2.5. Modeling the variability (modulation) of signals between neurons.

      From the standpoint of normal physiology, the nervous system is considered an excitable tissue:
      it is capable of changing the transmembrane potential difference upon stimulation, and in some cases spontaneously.
      A single neuron is in a continuous process of bioelectrogenesis.
      Registration of neuronal activity shows a continuous change in basic electrophysiological processes:
      resting potential, action potential, postsynaptic potentials (PSP): excitatory or inhibitory.
      There are no other sources of the electric field in the brain except neurons.
      The work of the brain is determined by the joint functioning of neural ensembles, and not by the activity of single neurons.

      Electronic, quantum or biological model of signal modulation between neurons is not implemented in artificial neural networks.

      The closest thing in NN AI to the model of signal modulation between neurons is the architecture of the NN `KAN` which implements the movement of fixed activation functions based on the statistical coefficients of neuron weights from neurons to the edges of a neural network, where each parameter of the statistical coefficient of weight is replaced by a one-dimensional function parameterized as a spline (a `flexible template` - a trainable nonlinear activation function based on neural connections).

      This approach to modeling flexible neural connections based on an electronic (or other) signal carrier may be close to the process of transmission and modulation of chemical signals by a variety of different neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in biological synapses of living organisms.
      The complexity of such modeling is primarily associated with the need to create an accurate, deterministic mathematical model of the functioning of a biological synapse of a living organism, in which it is necessary to take into account all its possible states, depending on input parameters.
      In the case of retrograde neurotransmission in the synapse, and this process is the reverse propagation of the signal (through the diffusion in the opposite direction of chemicals and compounds - neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the synaptic cleft), the output parameters of the synapse become the input parameters.

      In chemical synapses, to transmit a pulse signal (the process of neurotransmission), various amounts of substances - neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (the latter can slow down the action of fast-acting neurotransmitters) - are released from the membranes of presynaptic nerve endings (dendrites).
      Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are released from synaptic vesicles of the presynaptic membrane of the dendrite, in response to the appearance of an action potential on the membrane of the dendrite (depolarization of its membrane), diffuse through the synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptors, causing changes in the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite (depolarization of its membranes).
      Vesicles are small bubbles found in synapses that contain a variety of substances: hormones, neuromodulators, and neurotransmitters, of which there are dozens of types.
      During neurotransmission, these combinations of simple and complex substances, in varying volumes and proportions, are released from synaptic vesicles to transmit a modulated signal chemically.

      Neurotransmitter receptors are protein complexes located on the cell membrane.
      It is their nature that determines whether the effect of a particular neurotransmitter will be excitatory or inhibitory.
      If receptors are constantly stimulated by neurotransmitters or certain drugs, their sensitivity decreases;
those receptors that are not stimulated by neurotransmitters or with their chronic drug blockade, they become hypersensitive (open receptors).
      These processes greatly affect the development of physical dependence.
      The receptor and neurotransmitter interact like a key and a lock, or like puzzle pieces, and this triggers a signaling cascade - the cell (neuron) `understands` what it was told.
      Narcotic substances, caffeine and alcohol are also capable of attaching to neurotransmitter receptors.
      The brain cannot be forced to do anything, it can only be deceived, distracted by some all-consuming activity, and then all stressful situations or negative dependencies will be devalued.
      Then neurotransmitters are destroyed by enzymes or absorbed by neurons - these processes control the duration of the signal transmitted to the postsynaptic neuron.
      It is these processes that some pharmacological drugs act on to treat, for example, depression.
      For example, classic antidepressants are inhibitors of the reuptake of the neurotransmitter - serotonin.
      They do not allow serotonin (neurotransmitter) to quickly disappear from the contact site, prolonging its effect on neurons.

      Intercellular interactions in the central nervous system (CNS) are very complex. An impulse from one neuron to another can go from:
      - axon to cell body;
      - axon to dendrite;
      - cell body to cell body;
      - dendrite to dendrite.

      A neuron simultaneously receives a huge number of impulses - both excitatory and inhibitory - from other neurons, and combines these signals into various discharge patterns.

      Sometimes signals between neurons pass in the opposite direction (so-called retrograde neurotransmission).
      In such cases, the dendrites (receiving branches of a neuron) of postsynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters that affect receptors on presynaptic neurons.
      Retrograde transmission can prevent presynaptic neurons from releasing additional neurotransmitters and help control the level of activity and connections between neurons.

      There are substances that act as both neurotransmitters and hormones.
      A hormone is a substance secreted by endocrine glands that affects the tissues (cells) of the body.
      Hormones are responsible for global processes in the body, such as growth, puberty, ...
      A neurotransmitter is a substance secreted by a neuron to transmit a signal, most often to another neuron.
      Hormones are biologically active substances produced by the cells of the endocrine glands (endocrine glands).
      From there they enter the blood and are carried by the bloodstream to target cells and tissues.
      There they bind to specific receptors and thus regulate metabolism and many physiological functions.

      To work with a minimum of energy expenditure, the brain has internal mechanisms that force a person to search for answers to various questions via an iPad on the Internet, to act according to the patterns offered by society or to implement one of the 3 main `baboon` drives, and not to think with high energy expenditures in the associative zones of the neocortex.
      And for this purpose, the limbic system of the brain produces such endogenous substances as:
      — Endogenous opioid peptides ,       Happiness hormones: endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphins, etc.
      The brain's opioid peptide system plays an important role in the formation of motivations, emotions, behavioral attachment, reactions to stress and pain, and in the control of food intake.
   — Endocannabinoids are cannabinoids produced by the human body.
      Endocannabinoid system (ECS) helps the body cope with anxiety and physiological responses to various forms of stress.
      The body produces endocannabinoids during strenuous exercise, inflammation, stress, and related conditions.
      These signaling molecules activate the ECS immediately after they are detected by the body's cannabinoid receptors.
      Chemical classification of hormones.
   — Endogenous alcohol : this is ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is formed in the body under the influence of biochemical processes and is concentrated in the cells of internal organs and tissues.
Its content in the blood does not exceed 1 mg/l , depends on the nature of the food consumed and the presence of certain pathological conditions.

      Various social institutions have been using methods of managing and manipulating people for centuries, offering them the least energy-consuming for the brain, ready-made algorithms (templates) of behavior.       (A social institution is a historically formed or purposefully created form of organizing the joint activities of people aimed at satisfying human needs and society, regulating people's behavior by establishing rules).

      When executing ready-made solutions (proposed algorithms), the brain consumes a minimum of energy (9%), and the endogenous substances released by the limbic system give a feeling of satisfaction, which is used to control the masses of people. State systems, religious cults, social communities are built on this, ...

      Neurotransmitters are responsible for local processes in the body - they initiate rapid signal transmission between neurons or between a neuron and a muscle.
      The most common neurotransmitters belong to one of two types - excitatory and inhibitory.
      The first type - those that excite the next neuron (if one neuron in the chain is active, the next one will be too).
      The second type inhibits neighboring neurons.
      There are also neuromodulators — they do not simply transmit an excitatory or inhibitory signal, but change the neuron's susceptibility to such signals.

       Neurotransmitters (1) , neurotransmitters (2) , currently, include 4 groups of substances:
      - amino acids;
      - peptides;
      - monoamines;
      - purine nucleotides.

      There are up to 24 main neurotransmitters (according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/).
(The total number of neurotransmitters is unknown, it is assumed that there are more than 60.
Despite such diversity, these agents can be divided into two large categories: low molecular neurotransmitters and neuropeptides).

      4.2.6. Numerous connections between neurons in the neocortex (one neuron has 1 axon and up to 30,000 (according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/: 100,000 - 1,000,000) branching dendrites (primary and secondary)), which is significantly greater in the number of connections compared to artificial neuron models in artificially created NN AI. (On the branches of the dendrites there are 5,000 to 10,000 synapses, each of which connects to similar synapses of other neurons. In total, there are more than 100 trillion synaptic connections in the brain).

      4.2.7. Complex 3D configuration (architecture) of connections in each neuron in the neocortex, which is different from the simpler 2D configuration (architecture) of layer-by-layer connections in artificial models of neurons in artificially created AI NNs.

      4.2.8. The neocortex contains two main types of neurons: pyramidal neurons (the main excitatory neurons of the mammalian brain, also found in fish, birds, reptiles) (~70%-80% of neocortical neurons) and interneurons ((intermediate, intercalary, associative) are mediators between sensory and motor neurons) (~20%-30% of neocortical neurons).

      4.2.9. In the NN AI there are no emerging desires and supporting intermediate results, namely:

      - There are no analogues, as in humans, of the emergence of various desires:
aspirations, intentions, readiness, interest, wishes, will, interest, expressions of will, passions, dreams, attractions, desires, urges, determination, hopes, thirst ... (hints, tasks, `orders` from the `customer` do not apply to `desires` NN).

      - There are no analogues, as in humans, of various reinforcing intermediate results:
joy, happiness, enjoyment, contentment, pleasure, satisfaction, fun, entertainment, honor, delight, gratitude, satisfaction, respect, joy, game, buzz, advantage, luck, bliss, jubilation ...

      That is, the functions of the most ancient (and therefore evolutionarily perfect), inherited by man from monkeys are absent - the limbic system.
      The limbic system is a morphological carrier (neurohormonal center) responsible for a set of mental processes and phenomena that are not included in the sphere of consciousness of the subject - the unconscious (which includes the instinctive-hormonal mechanism of regulating behavior, involuntary (unconscious) movements and actions).

     - There are no analogues, as in a person, the presence of a moment of uncertainty of his state, associated with `arbitrary thinking` (stochastic, probabilistic, random), which allows a person to realize social or biological `freedom of choice`, the concept of indeterminism (incompatibilist theories) - `Free Will`.

      Example: A. Evolutionarily, the limbic system of the brain developed primarily to meet the biological needs of the body.
As a result, innate forms of behavior or animal instincts appeared.
      For example, amygdala complex - the center of aggression.
      An important protective department in the brain is considered to be the stress center, or paired nucleus - the amygdala.
      We owe it to the formation of emotions when receiving this or that information.
      The amygdala plays a key role in the formation of emotions, in particular fear.
      The reaction of the amygdala is the second name of the amygdala - can be caused by a sudden change of environment.
      The amygdala (lat. corpus amygdaloideum), amygdala is an almond-shaped area of the brain, located in the white matter of the temporal lobe of the hemisphere under the shell, approximately 1.5–2.0 cm posterior to the temporal pole.
      There are two amygdalae in the brain, one in each hemisphere.

      The limbic system is evolutionarily quite conservative and weakly subject to variability, as a consequence of this, its adaptation (biological) to changing conditions of the external environment is difficult.

      Self-awareness (pseudo-awareness, `biological awareness`) is found in many animals, but not all species have a tendency towards social life, since this is associated with the size and structure of the associative centers in the brain.

      Unconscious attraction (psychologists attribute this phenomenon to the `unconscious` area of brain activity) is formed in the limbic system (at the same time, the corresponding hormones are released), which is an innate part of the brain that determines innate instincts and makes up 10% volume of the entire brain.

      Unconscious attraction is based on an unmotivated animal principle: `I WANT something`.

      There are 3 main biological (or `animal`, `monkey`) drives, which are formed by the limbic system, and these are: food, reproduction, dominance (according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/).

      In society, their derivative varieties are manifested: deception, manipulation, fraud, vanity, pride, narcissism, power, violence, slavery, competition in any form, money (love of money), greed, various passions, demonstration of a high level of consumption of goods and services in order to cause envy in the environment, ...
      (If someone `prays` for material success, money, ..., then this means that he `prays` for the realization of some of his biological (or `animal`) needs, which in many religious teachings is usually equated with the negative processes of self-destruction of the socialized personality).

      The manifestation of dominance over the environment is possible only when existing in animal populations or in human communities.

      Example: B. Evolutionarily, in humans, secondarily (also, partially in primates), the associative zones of the neocortex developed to ensure the solution of not biological problems, but social ones, which allowed them to become centers of conscious inhibition of instinctive-hormonal behavior.
      The brain during the evolution of primates increased from 300 g (in monkeys) to, on average, 1300 g (in humans).
      The development of associative zones of the neocortex of the brain ensured high efficiency of human adaptation to external conditions of the environment, which gave him an evolutionary advantage and contributed to the settlement across the entire surface of the planet.
      The frontal lobes of the brain emerged as a tool for reducing social aggression.

      The evolution of the body and brain in humans proceeded separately from each other, therefore biological needs and social needs very rarely coincide.
      The development of `emotional intelligence` became necessary for the communication of primates when primates united into communities.
      Social instincts in primates (animals), when they exist in a population, are instilled to a minimal degree, but in a person, who is positively brought up from childhood in a human community, they can be clearly expressed.
      The neocortex performs mainly non-biological tasks and occupies approximately 80% of the brain volume in humans.

      Consciousness (according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/) is a speculative term that psychologists came up with in order to explain what they cannot explain.
      But in fact, consciousness (according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/) is a by-product of evolution, which first appeared in the form of the need to reduce aggression, by the appearance of excitation in the associative zones of the brain, inhibiting the activity of the limbic system and suppressing the basic 3 biological needs of the body.
      And all this with the goal of generally acceptable coexistence in the primate population (for example, the need to share food with non-relatives so that next time your `colleagues` will also share with you).
      Consciousness in primates gradually manifested itself through self-awareness in the population, and then in the human community.

      Then, this evolutionary feature was transformed into the ability to think rationally, logically and invent all sorts of useful and, conversely, destructive technologies.

     (For example, sharing food or other benefits with members of society, sharing valuable information with members of society, engaging in labor or other activities for the benefit of society, and all this with the goal of satisfying one’s biological needs, and then social ones, at the current moment in time or in the future).
     Social, human experiences and feelings: empathy, sympathy, compassion, harmony, beauty, love, trust, humor, ... - this is the result of a very long and severe evolutionary selection.
      It was in the process of human social evolution that huge frontal areas were formed, which inhibit animal aggression and allow maintaining social relations within the population, as well as sharing various material and immaterial benefits with unrelated individuals.

     And, this is a gigantic evolutionary acquisition of humanity, and a derivative of this evolutionary acquisition, this is precisely empathy (compassion) and others, which without social instincts, fixed in childhood, will not work (!!!innate social instincts do not exist!!!).

      Further development of association zones of the neocortex in humans was aimed at the development of logical thinking, the assimilation of abstract knowledge and the operation of it, with the aim of more effective adaptation in society, the extraction of various benefits, the creation of new ideas, ...
      That is these areas of the brain began to be used for rational thinking, which can create ideas that create, or, conversely, destroy the surrounding world.

      The process of rational thinking that occurs in the association areas of the neocortex may be based on:
      - some social material or non-material motivation (joy from acquired goods, or, conversely, experiences associated with loss), such intermediate social motivations, all the same, at their core have a ‘masked’ biological (animal) basis, and this is any of the 3 above-mentioned drives generated by the limbic system;
      - `compulsory` order: `I MUST do this and that`.

      The frontal lobe contains inhibitory areas that distinguish humans from animals (associative, motor, speech zones).
      These are associative areas (zones) that inhibit human behavior if it is similar to the behavior of an animal.
      Associative areas do not react in any way to forced electrical stimulation, unlike motor and speech areas (which control the muscles of the larynx, etc.), which react to forced electrical stimulation by contracting the corresponding muscles of the body.
      It has been experimentally established that brain activity in the motor areas allows for more effective consolidation of new knowledge in the associative areas.

      The limbic system, by influencing the neocortex with various hormones (endorphins and other endogenous substances that cause euphoria in humans), seeks to subjugate the rational part of the brain - association zones of the neocortex, since the functioning of the limbic system is much less energy-consuming for the brain than the active functioning of the association areas of the neocortex.
      Biological evolution is the triumph of procrastination (laziness).
      The brain cannot be forced to do something just like that, so it can only be `fooled` by setting a biological goal that can be achieved in a short period of time.
      Life is a continuous struggle: either you deceive the brain, or the brain deceives you.
      There is a constant struggle - biological tasks versus social ones.

      The brain categorically does not want to work, because this sharply increases the body's energy costs, so it prefers to deceive, steal, imitate (based on the limbic system), but never to do anything related to thinking (based on the neocortex).

      It is energetically beneficial for the brain to be a `baboon` and not to include the rational part of the brain in work, and not to include the rational part of the brain - to act according to the developed behavioral `patterns`, receiving a reinforcing reward in the form of endorphins and other endogenous substances released.
      Endorphin is a group of 20 similarly structured peptide hormones (neuropeptides) that the body uses as a natural painkiller.
      They are secreted by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in response to pain or stress to maintain the body's efficiency and performance.
      Endorphins dull unpleasant sensations and give a feeling of well-being.
      They are also produced when a person laughs, falls in love, or eats delicious food.
      In the peripheral nervous system, endorphins bind to opioid receptors, which leads to a decrease in pain.
      In the central nervous system, they stimulate the production of dopamine - a hormone that motivates and gives a feeling of satisfaction. There is a wide variety of endogenous substances (see above).

      In the area of the frontal lobe (association areas) of the neocortex, where the processes of rational activity of the brain occur, processes of conscious inhibition of animal instincts (behavior) can occur, which come into conflict with the influence of hormones of the limbic system.


      In the neural connections of the neocortex fields, information about various memories, knowledge, experiences, skills, social interactions is distributed and stored...
      The balance between the functioning processes of the limbic system and the rational processes in the associative areas of the neocortex constitutes the duality of human consciousness
(or the balance between hormonal-instinctive, unconscious behavior (`like monkeys`) and the rational activity of a person).

      The balance of the system of biological instincts and the system of social instincts (traditions) that were instilled in childhood.
      These two systems constantly collide with each other.
      The brain is designed in such a way that one part of it is monkey-like, and the other is rational.
      On the one hand (and this is the legacy of primates), a person wants to become the main `baboon` in the `baboon paradise` - to be rich, beautiful, live in Hawaii, have many slaves, etc., and on the other hand there is a social system of relations (it is brought up from childhood, copied from the family and environment).
      Because of this, a person behaves dually, being in a state of constant comparison of social obligations and instinctive desires.
      You want to do one thing, you are forced to do another, and neither the first nor the second works out.
      This is especially evident in adolescence.
      And this duality does not depend on anything (neither on wealth, nor on anything ...)
      All theological concepts that teach that there is hell and there is heaven are built on this duality of consciousness, so make a choice between two opposite sides of existence.

      An illustration of such extremely dual behavior is the Gothic story by the Scottish writer Robert Stevenson "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde" 1886, which had a number of film adaptations, television versions, theater productions and musicals, and later, similar plots lines appeared in literary works and scripts by other writers.
      Robert Stevenson's prototype of the main character was the famous Scottish criminals who led a double life: Thomas Weir and William Brodie, and the general background was urban legends and the historical landscapes of Edinburgh.
      In the above cases, fluctuations in the psychological state (behavior) of the individual are traced from the animal, instinctive-hormonal phase (which is formed by the limbic system), to a rational human one (determined by the processes of rational thinking in the associative areas of the neocortex), and vice versa.

      In a more expanded understanding of the types of consciousness, https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/ identifies 3 realizations of consciousness (which are present in most people in varying proportions):

      Primary `pseudo-consciousness` (biological `awareness`): is based on the limbic system. It is found in reptiles, animals, primates.
      This is the most ancient `pseudo-consciousness` (biological `awareness`), which was formed in the process of evolution of species over hundreds of millions of years.
      Determines the form of hormonal-instinctive, unconscious behavior - food, (reproductive - in different species of organisms, begins at different ages), dominant.
      Those who possess only primary `pseudo-consciousness` (biological `awareness`) are subject to pedagogical treatment with great difficulty, or do not subject to it at all, since the neocortex is not sufficiently formed for normal functioning.
      (It is the main one for human children under 7-9 years of age (since the formation of the neocortex, by this age, only reaches the initial level of functioning), and, subsequently, the influence of primary `pseudo-consciousness` (biological `awareness`) on human behavior depends on the processes surrounding him in the family and society, as well as on the degree of development of his secondary and tertiary consciousness).

      Secondary consciousness: is based on certain fields of the neocortex, in particular, on the developed associative areas of the brain.
      In the process of human life, social instincts are formed in the associative areas of the brain.
      Secondary consciousness is present in people and is characterized by rational logical (deductive) thinking (type - a `functionary` adapting to the conditions of existence, a socialized conformist with developed social instincts).

      It can be used to obtain various material and non-material benefits, primarily those required by its limbic system (in society, these requirements are transformed into derivatives: money, power, cooperation for subsequent benefit, ...), and internal reinforcement of imaginary or real success is a reward in the form of the release of certain endogenous substances.
      Image consumption, imitating one’s own greatness, is not a creative activity in itself.

      Often, to achieve these goals, in honest and not very ways, various manipulations of public opinion are used.
      The main occupation of the `Functionarys` is to strengthen their dominance in society, and for this they need constant growth of their own career and the career of their descendants, accumulation of material resources, demonstration of a high level of consumption, demonstration of their importance and the level of power achieved, development of the `necessary` official and social connections, competitive struggle for benefits, mandatory organization of rest from `backbreaking` work, and, despite such a level of employment, there is still enough time and abilities to imitate vigorous official activity.
      `Functionarys` are `masters` in the field of social instincts, as well as in simulating creative processes, using for this purpose the combination of outside ideas and technologies (the same combinatorics are used in games such as chess, checkers, backgammon, go and the like).
      Being unable to create something truly new, they try to engage in licensed or unlicensed copying of other people's developments - reverse engineering , presenting the results as `supernova` innovations.





      (In human children, starting from the age of 7-9 years, certain fields of the neocortex can remember, operate and apply various knowledge, skills, experience, social instincts, ..., which indicates the emergence of secondary consciousness).

      Tertiary consciousness: is based on certain fields, increased in size neocortex, possessing an increased degree of variability (active and frequent change of a large number of neural connections in certain enlarged fields of the neocortex, is a sign of a tendency to genius in any sphere of human activity - the ability to think arbitrarily).

      A long-term evolutionary choice has determined the priority task of the brain's work - to support the functioning of only the limbic system of the brain, because its functioning is energetically more advantageous (occupies only 10% of brain volume) than the energy-consuming work of the neocortex, and provides such a necessary and stable biological / animal / instinctive / unconscious vital activity of the body.
      Therefore, the owners of tertiary consciousness receive endorphins and other endogenous substances from the limbic system so that the cells of the neocortex are not active (`were happy, went on vacation, became lazy and rested from work`) and do not produce very energy-consuming rational (deductive) and creative (inductive, `suggestive`) activity in solving non-biological problems.
      But, in some strange way (a kind of `deception` of the limbic system, through `distraction` to the work of the motor, olfactory, tactile or auditory centers of the neocortex), in those with tertiary consciousness, certain fields of the neocortex are not `switched off` (not deactivated) from an excess of `happiness`, and, being in a state of `euphoria`, continue rational (deductive) and creative (inductive, `suggestive`) activity, when solving non-biological problems.
      In this state of `joy, happiness, creative euphoria and loss of the sense of time` in the association areas of the neocortex, both intermediate results arise and final ideas are generated that have not yet existed in human society or in nature.

      Hyperspecialization of individual parts of the brain responsible for various types of `genius` are structures where hormonal-instinctive, unconscious behavior generated by the limbic system is suppressed, but the state of `joy, happiness, creative euphoria and loss of the sense of time` is preserved.
      This effect is achieved by processes of conscious inhibition of animal (`baboon`) instincts, in the associative areas of the brain.
      Associative areas of the neocortex can be `distracted` and disinhibited, to maintain motivation to engage in voluntary thinking, if the motor areas of the brain are working intensively in the background, and, also, their work `distracts` the limbic system from fulfilling the 3 main biological needs (desires).
      That is, you can force the brain to think in the associative areas of the neocortex when it is not necessary to think at all, for example, when you are enthusiastically engaged in some physical activity or load the olfactory and gustatory areas of the brain with gastronomic delights.
      In the disinhibited associative areas of the brain, abstractions can appear: analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization and the ability to predict.
      This disinhibition allows combining intense creative (inductive, `guiding`) mental activity in the associative fields of the neocortex, with a state of `joy, happiness, creative euphoria and loss of a sense of time`, thereby `deceiving` the limbic system (the necessary (`creative`) endorphins and other endogenous substances are released, and neurons `do not go to rest`, but on the contrary, increase their activity, and, thus, the overall energy expenditure of the brain increases).
     (Endorphins are this is a group of 20 peptide hormones (neuropeptides) similar in structure, which the body uses as a natural painkiller. Other endogenous substances are also released (see above)).

      Due to such a quantitatively large and frequent variability of the architecture of neural connections, mood swings due to `saturation of endorphins and other endogenous substances`, and, conversely, `lack of endorphins and other endogenous substances`, `geniuses` may have a structural predisposition of the brain structure to an unstable psyche, eccentric antics.
      Tertiary consciousness is characterized by an arbitrary (inductive, `suggestive`) type of thinking, and these people are capable of creating ideas that have not yet existed in human society or in nature.
      But the recognition and implementation of new ideas in society often experiences difficulties.

      Society, during periods of its stable existence, carries out artificial social selection, which consists of excluding from society the most aggressive (with inadequate, irrational, animal, `baboon` behavior) and the too smart (who can reasonably criticize, not grovel, and also propose changes), with the goal that only well-managed social conformists remain in society.
      In the conditions of a stable society `geniuses`, as a rule, are not in demand (pronounced `creators` with tertiary consciousness, in this situation, do not realize their potential and often become marginal, and pronounced `Functionarys`, with secondary consciousness quickly adapt to existing conditions and are in demand in society, where they perform the functions of maintaining the stability of various processes in society).
      During periods of historical changes in society, to solve non-standard problems, people with tertiary consciousness suddenly become in demand.
      Later, after stability is established in society, people with tertiary consciousness, are again displaced by `Functionarys` with secondary consciousness.
      When displacing people with tertiary consciousness, `Functionarys` use various manipulative methods to discredit the `creators`.
      Another option for displacing people with tertiary consciousness is monotony and boredom from routine, template work, and the creation of such a routine work environment is actively carried out by `functionaries`.

      Based on historical analysis, https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/ substantiated that in a single country, for the normal existence and development of the state, bearers of all types of consciousness (in different proportions) should be represented and work for the benefit of society, whose behavior is predominantly oriented towards:
      - Primary `pseudo-consciousness` (biological `awareness`) - 70%;
      - Secondary consciousness - 20%;
      - Tertiary consciousness - 10%.
      A significant violation of these proportions leads to the emergence of problems in the normal functioning of society (imitation of vigorous activity, without senseful understanding), and, as a consequence, its degradation in various spheres of human activity.

      4.2.10. In NN AI there is no senseful goal setting, as in humans.

      In the process of evolution, all living organisms acquire the instinct of survival, but man, in addition to this, has acquired another instinct, which puts us in a very special position - this is a developed reflex (motor instinct) of achieving a goal.

      Concept "Goal reflex" was first formulated by the physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate of 1904, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 - 1936).
      "The goal reflex" is a reflex or motor instinct that pushes any living being to active actions.
      This reflex means the ability to set goals, followed by a goal-oriented approach to the result.

      According to physiologists, the desire to achieve a goal is initially embedded in every person at the genetic level, but there is another version: the limbic system forms the first goal-setting based on the main 3 biological drives of a person, as the corresponding sections of the brain and parts of the body mature.
      The biological "Goal Reflex" can be strengthened by certain psychological and physical exercises.

      Social and creative "Goal Reflexes" (as the next levels of goal-setting, different from the biological (animal) level) in a person can manifest themselves as certain associative areas and morphofunctional fields of the neocortex develop.
      (The question of goal-setting remains `behind the scenes`: creative or destructive)?

      Academician I. P. Pavlov was also the first to formulate the concept of «Freedom reflex».
      «Freedom reflex» is a natural reaction of a living organism to an external influence (stimulus) associated with the restrictions that have arisen, including those associated with the restriction of movement.
      The concept of «freedom reflex» in the upbringing of human children (or, for example, animal training) helps to understand the decisive role of the balance of freedom (excitation) and discipline (inhibition).
________

      So, in humans and animals, primary goal-setting ("Goal reflex" or motor instinct) is formed on the basis of the 3 main biological (animal) drives (food, reproduction, dominance), and is characterized by hormonal-instinctive forms of behavior.
      Instinctive-hormonal forms of behavior (and therefore primary goal-setting), in humans, are controlled by the most evolutionarily ancient limbic system of the brain, through the release of various endogenous substances (for example, through the 4 hormones of "happiness": serotonin, endorphin, dopamine and oxytocin or etc.).
      The limbic system of the human brain occupies approximately 10% of the brain volume and consists of a number of functional parts.

      Social or creative goal-setting (as the next levels of goal-setting, different from the biological (animal) level) are characterized by rational awareness of goal-setting ("Rational striving for a goal").

      But, in social or creative goal-setting, one can always notice the manifestation of some derivative of the main 3 biological (animal) drives (motives), more often in all, these are derivatives of "dominance", for example:
desire for glory (pride), desire for material success (love of money), desire to control the environment (love of power) - to be a "slave owner", desire to demonstrate a high level of consumption of goods and services of the luxury segment, desire to demonstrate superiority in knowledge or skills, ...

      That is, the "Goal Reflex" or motor instinct determined by the limbic system of the brain is veiledly present in these cases, which often manifests itself in the emotional arousal accompanying the goal-setting process.

      In humans, social forms of behavior (not biological, not animal, but social instincts) can manifest/become fixed as the structures of certain associative areas and morphofunctional fields of the neocortex develop normally, and also in the presence of a positive (creative) attitude of the immediate human environment and society as a whole.

      A person, in the process of rational setting of social or creative goals, uses the logical `Production model of knowledge`.
      This model, based on rules, allows knowledge to be presented in the form of sentences (`PRODUCTIONS`) of the type:
      - "If (condition), then (action)",
or,
      - "If (reason), then (consequence)".

      These sentences (`PRODUCTIONS`) are single cause-and-effect relationships, which are equivalent to single senses.
      The logical `Production model of knowledge` is fragments `Semantic network`, based on temporary relations between states of objects (cause-and-effect relationships, or senses).

      The logical `Production model of knowledge` has a drawback: when accumulating a sufficiently large number (about several hundred) of productions, they begin due to irreversibility disjunctions contradict each other (this drawback is manifested when using languages and systems of logical programming, for example: Prolog, Answer Set Programming (ASP), Datalog, ...).

      An analysis of knowledge representation methods in intelligent decision-making support systems.
      Knowledge Representation Formalisms.
      Knowledge representation and reasoning.
      On the problems of representation and propagation of uncertainty in expert systems.

      As you can see, modern NN AI do not set goals for themselves in the form of `Production models of knowledge` (displaying fragments of `Semantic networks` defining various senses).

      The general goal of the functioning of the NN AI, in the form of a mathematical problem of minimizing the objective function of the NN error in each iteration cycle, is determined by:

      1. The architecture/configuration of the NN, specified by the developers of the NN, and not by morphogenetic adaptation of neural connections, as in the neocortex of the brain human.

      2. Initial deep training of the NN on a set of samples of a certain type, which forms an ordered set of statistical weights of the NN neurons, which determine a modified activation function (-template) capable of calculating output data.

      The specific goal/task of outputting the necessary data is set by the user/agent/client of the NN.

      From this it follows that modern NN AI function in such a way that they do not recognize and do not compare/evaluate the senses of processes that for the real world can be expressed in the form of `Production models knowledge`.

      During training, modern NN AI receives only highly specialized, limited information about elements from the real picture of the surrounding world, and not in the form of `Production models of knowledge` (a related set of cause-and-effect relationships).

      This leads to the fact that the NN classifies these elements using statistical methods, builds its compositions of specified formats from them (maybe even with the imitation of some of its own, statistically verified cause-and-effect relationships), but cannot evaluate them for compliance with `common` senses (`Production models of knowledge`, or fragments of an abstract Semantic network containing a set of related cause-and-effect relationships) of the real world.

      Ah, here is a person who in the process of life accumulates knowledge of `common` senses in the form of `Production models of knowledge`, in different directions, can quite easily and quickly compare/evaluate the senses of the processes obtained in the NN responses for their compliance with the processes occurring in the real world.

      Through `Production Rules`, one can express various abstract senses or senses of the real world.

      For example, `Production Rules` can describe the sense of proverbs, fables, jokes, rules, short texts, compress large literary works into a set of `Production Rules`, a set of nested `Production Rules` can describe a complex mathematical formula at a logical level, ...

      For example, `Production Rules` can describe the sense of a natural phenomenon of the real world, an artificially created process in the real world, a social event in the real world, physical or chemical laws of the real world, laws from any area of human knowledge.

      Example. Brief GENERALIZED RULE OF PRODUCTION - THE MEANING OF THE FABLE "The Swan, the Pike and the Crayfish" - Krylov I. A.:

      IF a multitude of mutually exclusive (mutually cancelling) factors (efforts) are used to solve a problem,
      THEN the problem is not solved.

      4.2.11. Some obvious differences between existing models of artificial neural networks and neural networks in the morphofunctional fields and associative areas of the human neocortex.

      ● `Pseudoneuron` of an artificial 2D NN, is presented as a nodal mechanism with the ability to temporarily fix (`remember`) (in training mode) the value of the parameter - statistical weight, and, in simplified terms, is close in functional purpose to the `pseudobody` (`pseudosome`) of a living neuron, without an internal network of `pseudo dendrites` and `pseudo synapses`

      (Differences: a living neuron is an analog processor with a variable program for calculating the Action Potential value - `spike`, depending on the changing configuration (morphogenesis) of neural connections - chemical synapses located at most of the endings of dendrites, which form a computational analog dendritic network of a neuron with a common membrane.

      Retraining of the neural network of the human neocortex occurs constantly, due to changes in the configuration of neural connections - synapses (morphogenesis) in the morphofunctional fields of the neocortex, and this is a significant limitation of artificial NN.

      On the membrane of the body (soma) of a neuron, a signal (`spike`), calculated and received from a dendritic network of changing configuration (morphogenesis), is collected (integrated) for subsequent propagation along the axon).

      ● A set of `pseudoneuronic` connections of one `pseudoneuron` of an artificial NN are an analogue of a set of `pseudoaxons`, connected to the next, near layer of `pseudoneurons`.

      (Differences: in a living neuron one axon (or several) are formed, which transmit the integrated signal to distant, and not to nearby neurons (or innervated organs).

      ● Many `pseudoaxons` of one `pseudoneuron` of an artificial NN do not have `pseudosynapses` - analogues of chemical synapses (`spike` modulators), as in the axon of a living neuron.

      ● `Pseudoneuron` of an artificial NN does not have an internal computing analog dendritic network of changing configuration (morphogenesis).

      ● `Pseudoneuron` of an artificial NN does not have any located on most of the endings of dendrites, forming a network of changing configuration (morphogenesis), analogs of chemical synapses (chemical modulators of `spikes`), and, therefore, cannot transmit or receive through them calculated signals (local `spikes`) to neighboring, close `pseudoneurons`.

      ● Modulation of the electrical ACTION POTENTIAL (`SPIKE`) in any chemical SYNAPSE of a living neuron mainly depends on the EMOTIONAL and PHYSIOLOGICAL (NORMAL or PATHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING OF PARTS OF THE ORGANISM) STATE of a person, determined by endogenous substances secreted by the limbic system and other parts of the body.
      Exogenous substances entering the body from the outside, for example, with food, can also have an effect.

      ● Thus, 3D neural networks in the morphofunctional fields and associative areas of the human neocortex are much more complex than artificial 2D NNs.

      In 2D artificial NNs there are no:
      - Analogues of internal `pseudodendritic` computing networks (with ditochomic division of `pseudodendrites`).
      - Analogues of `pseudo-syapses` (similarly, producing modulation of signals (analogues of `spikes`) and exchanging a set of computed signals (analogs of `spikes`) with the nearest `pseudodendritic` computing networks of `pseudoneurons` at the local level).
      - Connections of one `pseudoaxon` with a distant `pseudoneuron` through an analog of a `pseudosynapse`.
      - Analogues of the use of the principles of morphogenesis for `pseudodendrites` and `pseudosynapses`, which would allow for continuous retraining of the neural network.

      4.2.12. Some facts about the human brain, for comparison with existing AI systems:
      The mass of the human brain rarely exceeds 2% of the average person's body mass.
      In humans, the brain's energy consumption of the body's total energy expenditure at rest is 9% (oxygen from 18%), and in the process of intensive thinking it reaches - 25% (oxygen consumption by the entire brain can reach up to 30% of the body's total consumption).
      The human brain produces only about 10-20 watts of constant power (depending on the intensity of its work) - the same as a very dim light bulb.
      There is unevenness in energy consumption by different parts of the brain, and this energy consumption depends on the solution of various types of tasks.
      The ideal ratio between the time periods of intensive brain work and its rest is 1:3.
      For example, 4 hours of total intellectual work with short breaks (which is usually the maximum for the brain) and in total before or after the load - 4 x 3 = 12 hours of other activity (active rest), 8 hours of sleep.
      The need for a long rest of the brain from work is due to the fact that with intensive brain work, its energy consumption increases, the consumption of substances participating in chemical reactions increases, there is an accumulation of some of the non-excreted breakdown products of chemical reactions, there is a need for processes of destruction or redistribution of some neural connections, etc.

      For comparison: Data centers consume a huge amount of resources, including water and electricity.
      AI is one of the most `gluttonous`.
      According to only rough estimates, the amount of energy currently required to support AI services and applications is equal to the amount consumed by the Netherlands.

     AI is projected to consume up to 1,050 TWh per year by 2026, equivalent to Germany's current energy consumption, or more than double its already rapidly increasing rate.
      This threatens to undo what little progress on climate has been made and allow big tech companies to become some of the worst polluters on the planet.
      As a result, big AI companies are turning to nuclear power, and every serious climate scientist has collectively grabbed hold of head.
      Amazon, Google, Microsoft, and xAI are currently the most prominent corporations in the AI space, as they not only develop their own AI, but also build, maintain, and operate AI infrastructure, such as data centers, for both themselves and other AI companies.
      For example, although OpenAI is the largest AI company in the world, it uses Microsoft infrastructure to operate.
      Thus, the vast majority of the AI industry's infrastructure expansion and exponentially growing energy consumption is due to these four companies.

      A server rack supporting AI services is more "gluttonous" than a standard one.
      So, if a rack usually consumes about 4 kW, then in the case of an "AI rack" it can already be 80 kW.
      And there are more than one or two such racks. In large data centers, there are hundreds or even thousands of them.
      Of course, 80 kW is more likely the maximum. Usually the power is less, but still much higher than in the case of conventional equipment.

      The energy generated by the human body is divided into mechanical, thermal and electrical.
      If we take the energy consumption of a person per day as 2500 kcal (the average world value), in standard physical units this will be 10,500,000 joules, which gives the average power of the human body: 100-150 watts, and during sports the power reaches 300-400 watts.

      Nerve cells contain positively charged potassium ions inside the cell membrane, and positively charged sodium ions outside the cell membrane, which have different electrical potentials, which creates a potential difference on the cell membrane (like in capacitors), and it is approximately 70 mV or 0.07 V.
      The membrane resting potential is a deficit of positive charges inside the cell, arising due to the work sodium-potassium pump (or other ion pumps) and (to a greater extent) the subsequent leakage of positive potassium ions from the cell.
      A membrane action potential (`spike`) is a wave of excitation moving along the membrane of a living cell in the form of a short-term change in the membrane potential in a small area of the excitable cell (neuron or cardiomyocyte), as a result of which the outer surface of this area becomes negatively charged relative to the inner surface of the membrane, while at rest it is positively charged. The action potential is the physiological basis of a nerve impulse.