:
    General information about
    the evolution of the brain, principles of its
    functioning, the reasons for the manifestation
    of genius, the triplicity of consciousness and
    the complexity of modeling the brain.
    According to Hermann Haken (1927-2024):
    models of biological
    SYNERGETIC (SELF-ORGANIZING)
    PULSE ANALOG COMPUTERS
    (Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs)
    possessing the ability to flexibly adapt their configuration to
    the requirements of the problem being solved, as well as, change
    operating modes associated with the participation of certain biochemical
    substances in the process, when exposed to various internal or external factors).

4.1. On the role of morphofunctional fields and subfields of the neocortex in the human brain.

      Neocortex (from Latin neocortex), new cortex, alternative name: isocortex (thickness 3.5-4 mm) - new areas of the human cerebral cortex, located in the upper layer of the cerebral hemispheres and responsible for higher nervous functions (sensory perception, execution of motor commands, conscious thinking, speech). Neurons are vertically combined into so-called cortex columns.
      At the beginning of the 20th century, Brodmann showed that in all mammals the new cortex has 6 horizontal layers of neurons.
      The neocortex contains up to 30 billion neurons. Up to 5 capillaries are connected to each neuron cell to provide nutrition and remove waste products.
      The entire human brain contains up to 80-100 billion neurons (according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/ - up to 150 billion neurons).
      The human brain consists of approximately 10^+14th power synapses.

There is one complex modified activation function (-`template`) for one trained NN AI.

      And the 6-layer neocortex of the human brain, which is divided into approximately 60 (morphofunctional) fields (responsible for specific functions), which, in turn, are divided into many subfields (responsible for specialized functions), has many functions that change over time.

      The transition zone between the functionally determined fields of the cerebral cortex (morphofunctional fields) is called limitrophe adaptation.
      During the research, the evolutionary fact was revealed that the lower the animal in terms of development, the greater the relative size of limitrophe adaptations.
      For example, in kangaroos, the relative size of limitrophe adaptations is much greater, and the morphofunctional fields themselves are smaller, compared to dogs and wolves.
      The closer an animal is evolutionarily to humans, the smaller the relative sizes of limitrophic adaptations.

      From the book "Cerebral Sorting" (https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/):
      «... Limitrophe adaptations became a real battlefield for reproductive and social success.
      Those who had fewer of them thought better, adapted, stole, cheated, hid their shortcomings and demonstrated their virtues.
      The unfortunate owners of large limitrophe adaptations were destined to the role of whipping boys or dead heroes.
      They passionately carried out bloody coups, started wars and destroyed countries.
      Their archaic brain demanded large-scale social actions, in which they enthusiastically participated.
      However, the fruits of the activity of the owners of outdated cerebral structures are always enjoyed by quiet conformists ...»
      (Neurologist, neuroanatomist I.N. Filimonov (1890 - 1966) proved that the functional fields responsible for vision, hearing, smell, etc., coincide with the morphological ones).

... The sizes of these (morphofunctional) fields determine specific functions: if the field is large, then the functions can be better. ...

... The boundaries of (morphofunctional) fields and subfields are determined by the vertical ordering of neurons, and by their `packing` - this is cytoarchitectonics (from the Greek κύτος - «cell», from the Greek "άρχι" - "highest, main", from the Greek τεκτονική, τεκτονικός, «structure, construction», «construction art») ...

      ... Here are all these (morphofunctional) fields (of the human brain), each responsible for its own function, there are a lot of them in humans (about 60 main ones), and they are very changeable ...
      (There are more than 300 fields and subfields in the neocortex in total, and sometimes some fields may be absent or, conversely, present individually (an example - the brain of the poet V. Mayakovsky, whose avant-garde poems `hammered` into the consciousness of the masses the belief in the ideas of a `communist utopia`)).
      ... Of particular interest are the publications by neuromorphologist E.P. Kononova (1880 - 1969)/ (here is a part of 60 scientific works)/ materials on the variability of five subfields of field 47 of the frontal cortex of the brain, which predetermines individual character traits, habits and innate human inclinations. The individual variability of these subfields is incredibly high and can reach 1400% ...

... For example, the sizes of 17, 18, 19 morphofunctional fields in artists can differ by 3-5 times from the sizes in the average person ...

... If the frontal and lower parietal parts of the brain are enlarged, then this is a sign of possible genius in some areas of human activity ...

The functions of the brain include processing sensory information from the senses, planning, decision making, coordination, motor control, emotions, attention, memory.

The human brain performs higher mental functions, including thinking.

One of the functions of the human brain is the perception and generation of speech.

... For example, here are some specific functions of (morphofunctional) fields:

● visual: there are graphic primitives - the primary visual field, color, it's all on the back of the head - there are three fields responsible for vision;

● speech fields, the famous Broca's area (center), which is responsible for speech. Wernicke's area (sensory speech area, Wernicke's speech area) is a part of the cerebral cortex, which, like Broca's area, has been associated with speech since the end of the 19th century.

● thumb control (motor skills) with feedback (sensorics);

● etc.

... But the horror is not in this, they (the fields of the human brain) are present in almost everyone, and the horror is that they are individually variable and are divided within themselves into subfields, which have even more specialized functions.

If the difference in fields (the volume of fields, in different people) is 3-5 times, then this is a huge difference (this affects the acquisition of certain skills, the predisposition to talents in a person)....

... But there is an even worse situation. In subfields, the difference, for example, in the association areas in the same subfields of both motor and auditory, the limbic system, which is responsible for the emotional-hormonal regulation of behavior, is 40 (!!!) times.

And this is already very bad. This is the very case when you (in the intellectual sense) "will be stepped on and not noticed". And here the difference (for different people) becomes monstrous. ...

      ... The development of the nervous system and behavior occurs in accordance with the principles of adaptive evolution ...
      ... The evolution of the brain led to the development of the cytoarchitectonics of its cortex ...
      ... Currently, to search for the morphological foundations of human giftedness, it is very important to study the individual variability of the architectonics and subcortical structures of the brain ...
      ... Control of early embryonic development of the vertebrate brain is substantiated in the positional theory, which proves that in the early stages of development there is no strict genetic determination ...
      ... That is, the fate of the cell is determined not by the genome, but by intercellular biomechanical interactions. (The structure of the brain is not genetically determined - up to 80% of the brain structure and intercellular interactions are determined by the processes of morphogenesis) ...
      ... I.N. Filimonov, a famous neurologist who studied the brains of many famous people at that time (at the `Brain Institute`) , studied, among others, the brains of Georgians, Jews, Germans, Russians, Chinese, Buryats ... (at least two races and several nations).
      He compared the results of the study of samples with each other, and, further, in Germany in the 1930s, he published a work in which he substantiated that individual variability of the brain is much higher than racial.
      This means that a child born regardless of the country, nation, race and profession of his parents may have certain large morphofunctional fields in the neocortex, and such a brain structure indicates his predisposition to genius in a certain area of human activity.

      Artificial cerebral sorting, proposed at https://brainmicroscopy.com/, using a tomograph created in the future (based on the principles of X-ray optics , phase contrast) with a resolution of 1 μm, will allow to determine the predisposition of each person to brilliant activity in a specific area during life.

      During a special histological study, this technology has already been tested on a synchrotron emitting electromagnetic waves in the X-ray range.
      In this case, the images obtained on the synchrotron were compared with the images of the same, but stained histological sample obtained by the traditional method.
      The results coincided.

      There are no average people, there are individuals, and in the future, at the age of 18-20, there will be an opportunity to determine what kind of activity a person will receive joy from, and not endless suffering.
      And then, for a specific person, it will be possible to select a job in which he will be a genius, and this will allow us to achieve personal justice in the payment of his labor and maximum benefit for society.

      For example, sometimes one can notice professors - `functionaries` who inherit this title in the 4th generation, who are clearly not intended to work in the scientific field.
      They suffer internally from their unsuitability for science, but outwardly they imitate vigorous pseudo-scientific activity.
      And, at the same time, they can be brilliant in a completely different field of activity and enjoy it.

      ... A telling example from the Soviet era is when they `pushed` `dark horses` into corresponding members and members of the USSR Academy of Sciences by secret ballot.
      Recognized as a Nobel Prize laureate in physics (October 29, 1964), professor Nikolai Gennadievich Basov (1922 — 2001) was elected as a corresponding member only on the third application (in 1966 he became a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences).
      The first and second times he was not elected, but some unremarkable `dark horses` were elected.
      For the world scientific community, this became a reason for laughter.
      And only under pressure from the party elite, Professor Nikolai Gennadievich Basov, finally, on the third attempt, the Academy Sciences of the USSR was recognized as a corresponding member.
      What did Professor Nikolay Gennadievich Basov discover together with Professor Alexander Mikhailovich Prokhorov (1916 — 2002) (also a Nobel Prize laureate in physics in 1964 (jointly with Nikolai Gennadievich Basov and Charles Hard Townes (1915 – 2015))).
      In 1952, they established the principle of amplification and generation of electromagnetic radiation by quantum systems, which made it possible to create the world's first quantum generator (maser) on a beam of ammonia molecules in 1954.
      The following year, a three-level scheme for creating an inverse population of levels was proposed, which found wide application in masers and lasers, which had a significant impact on humanity, since it became the basis for the development of various technologies ...

      This artificial cerebral sorting can be used for the most effective personnel optimization in any profession, which will give a colossal competitive advantage over other companies, corporations, countries.

      That is, in order to achieve the most effective functioning of communities, companies, collaborations of scientific organizations, management structures, states, ..., it is necessary to move from personnel biological (`animal`) selection to social (taking into account human creative potential (human creative `capital`)).

      It is important to note here that many psychological tests (for example: an IQ test, tests for demonstrating meaninglessly memorized information, tests for combinatorics, ...) were created by mediocre psychologists to identify the best mediocrities among the subjects, which often does not give an objective picture of a person's creative abilities in any area of human activity.

      An objective method for identifying a person’s predisposition (starting from 15-18 years old) to creativity in any area of human activity (in science, art, sports, people management, in professions that involve very precise and fast manipulation of some controls or tools, ...), is possible by analyzing the sizes of the corresponding morphofunctional fields and subfields of the neocortex, information about which can be obtained during life using a tomograph that has not yet been created (based on the principles of X-ray optics, phase contrast) with a resolution of 1 μm.

      There is also an indirect, not so precise, but also objective method of this assessment (by https://brainmicroscopy.com/).

      This is the performance by the subject of, for example, specially composed written tasks (or speech, motor, ...), with the removal of readings of the blood flow intensity in certain areas of the neocortex using a traditional tomograph (resolution of about 100 μm on standard tomographs, for dental cone-beam 2d/3d computer, dental tomographs - 70 μm, and the most advanced tomographs - 10 μm).

      And, based on the results of the readings, a rougher assessment of the sizes (boundaries) of the involved morphofunctional fields, subfields and associative areas of the neocortex, with further identification those sizes of fields (or associative areas) that exceed the average data, which will indicate a much better functioning of these fields (or associative areas), compared to other people.

      (The initial functioning of the processes of rational thinking in the association areas of the neocortex is due to the formation of certain morphofunctional fields and associative zones of the neocortex, which occurs by the age of 7-9, a sufficiently mature formation of morphofunctional fields (their sizes) occurs at about 18 years of age, and their final formation is completed at 25-27 years of age, sometimes at 30 years old).
      Children are by nature more biological (less socialized) than adults (rational self-awareness occurs only in a social environment).
      And the process of a child growing up is a process of imitation of other individuals (primates are recognized `masters` of imitation).
      If a child for some reason spends childhood in a pack of animals (`Mowgli children`), then, later, when he gets into human society, he cannot fully socialize.

      In the future, in order for a child to realize his predisposition to genius in a certain area of human activity, a certain environment of upbringing and education is required, within the framework of the corresponding specialization.
      It should be taken into account that different parts of the child's brain develop heterochronically.

      It is necessary to separate the processes of thinking, which can be in images or in words.
      Thinking in images is slow, occurs in morphofunctional fields, which are located in the back of the head and occupy up to 15% of the brain (not only humans, but also animals can think this way). The use of hieroglyphs in some languages, calligraphy, fine art, develop this type of thinking and memory (eidetics).
      Thinking in words is faster than in images, it is inherent in humans, while the morphofunctional fields of the brain are involved (mainly in the association areas), which occupy up to 50% of the brain.
      Thinking in words can be 3 times faster than speech.

      How can we identify, without a tomograph that has not yet been created (based on the principles of X-ray optics, phase contrast) with a resolution of 1 μm, what activity a person is most predisposed to?
      To save energy, which is intended only to satisfy biological needs, the brain will `resist`, `protest`, prohibit (through the release of certain endogenous substances) a person from engaging in a very energy-consuming activity, which is not intended to satisfy his biological needs (3 main drives according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/).

      Paradoxically, a person is most predisposed to the activity, when engaged in which, the brain begins to desperately `resist`.
      And this means that the limbic system of the brain secretes endogenous substances (for example, `happiness hormones`), which affect the neocortex, including associative zones (functional) , which come into a state of inhibition, and such a state is perceived as procrastination (`laziness`), `bliss`.
      The limbic system of the brain (like other organs of the body) can secrete various endogenous substances that have a positive or negative effect on the EMOTIONAL STATE of a person (through chemical modulation of ACTION POTENTIALS - `SpikeS`, in chemical synapses located at the ends of dendrites and forming neural connections (for more details, see below)).
      The impact on the EMOTIONAL STATE of a person can also be produced by exogenous substances with a similar mechanism of influence, which can enter the body from the outside, for example: with food, with drink, through the respiratory system, invasive injections of various medical drugs - chemicals compounds.
      These endogenous and exogenous substances are capable of attaching to receptors (protein complexes) of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, which are located on the cell membrane of chemical synapses.
      For example, narcotic substances, caffeine, alcohol, ... (this is a clarification for understanding the development of negative addictions) are capable of attaching to receptors of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators.
      Then, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are destroyed by enzymes or absorbed by neurons - these processes control the duration of the signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL - `SPIKA`), transmitted to the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite (part of the synapse).
      It is these processes that some pharmacological drugs act on to treat, for example, depression.
      For example, classical antidepressants are inhibitors of the reuptake of the neurotransmitter - serotonin.
      They do not allow, for example, serotonin (a neurotransmitter) to quickly disappear from the contact site, prolonging its effect on chemical synapses neurons.
      An imbalance of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (psychosomatic disorders) may be associated with burnout syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome and mood changes, abdominal pain, headache, loss of concentration, the occurrence of Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis or Alzheimer's disease ...

      Associative areas (zones) are areas that do not have direct connections with the periphery, but have extensive connections with both sensory and motor areas. In the posterior parts of the cortex, they are located between the parietal, occipital and temporal areas, in the anterior ones they occupy the main surface of the frontal lobes.



      (Not so long ago, it was discovered that associative centers based on other brain structures also exist in other vertebrates (in taxonomy recognizes from 7 to 9 modern classes of vertebrates): mammals, birds, reptiles or creeping things (turtles, crocodiles, beaked heads, scaly), amphibians, fish, ... And also insects, arthropods, cephalopods (octopuses, squids, cuttlefish) ...
      Many of these animals, in the association centers, have the ability at a primitive level to `PERCEIVE` / `LEARNING` / `MODELING` / `ANALYSIS` / `ADAPTATION` to a NEW SITUATION).

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      In specially conducted experiments, they tried to stimulate the associative areas of the brain with electric current, but no movements in the body or response through the sense organs were detected.
      Therefore, the study of their functioning was carried out indirectly - the loss of some features of thinking was studied during their accidental trauma.

      Associative areas cause associations - knowledge of the surrounding world, including the invention of everything new.
      For example, if, on the basis of the whole brain, personal experience, to carry out a huge preliminary work on studying it does not matter what and discover something new in it for yourself, then at the moment when an understanding of the sense of what was studied occurs (how it is arranged, how it works), and those very association areas function, and they serve as a kind of superstructure over the remaining morphofunctional fields and subfields of the neocortex, which are responsible for performing specific functions: vision, hearing, touch, smell, motor, sensorimotor, etc.
      Associative areas integrate and generalize information coming from the morphofunctional fields and subfields of the neocortex (which, in turn, receive information from various sense organs).

      Integration (understanding) of information (knowledge) studied occurs in associative areas and consists of:
      ● Establishing connections between objects according to some criteria.
      ● Establishing connections between events (cause and effect).
      ● Seeing a pattern (cause and effect) where it is not obvious.
      ● Forecasting (cause and effect), the ability to predict the outcome.

      When the limbic system of the brain secretes endogenous substances that inhibit the work of the associative areas of the neocortex, a significant portion of the energy that would be spent on the work of certain individually large morphofunctional fields of the neocortex is saved (and they predispose an individual to genius in something else besides the 3 biological drives).
      To `deceive`, `distract` associative zones (functional) from inhibition, use forced loading of sensorimotor morphofunctional fields through the control of some cyclic muscle contractions or use the effect on touch, smell, hearing.

      To train the brain, it is necessary to increase local blood circulation in a certain area, which will promote the growth of new neural connections and an increase in the size of certain morphofunctional fields of the brain, and this happens if you regularly engage in some unmastered business, a person becomes a professional in this chosen field of activity.

      If you don't learn anything new or create something new, after age 50, up to 30 g of neurons will die every 10 years.
      A negative aspect is also that brain cells, neurons, are not able to recover when they die.
      And a positive aspect is that the human brain is able to rebuild its functional connections, creating new ones. This is neuroplasticity.
      This may be one of the reasons why athletes who are only concerned with maintaining physical health and who do not practice creative problem solving, when the time comes, leave this life with a physically practically healthy body.
      Nobody promises athletes a long life, they only promise a healthy life, which is also not a small thing.
      In such cases, athletes have well-developed motor areas of the brain, and associative areas can degrade (sclerotic changes), so a balance between physical activity and mental activity is important.

      Also, metagenomic and epidemiological studies show the important role of the human microbiome in preventing a wide range of diseases, from type 2 diabetes, obesity, inflammatory bowel diseases to Parkinson's disease and even psychiatric diseases such as depression.
      The symbiotic relationship between the gut microbiota and various bacteria in the human body can influence the human immune response, and, as a result, the lifespan.
      Some studies suggest that microbiome-based treatments may be effective in treating diabetes, as well as a number of other diseases.
      Although cancer is a mixture of genetic diseases and environmental factors, microbes are involved in 20% of cases.

      As for the overall lifespan of somatic cells, it is limited by the number of divisions - determined by the Hayflick limit.
       Hayflick limit — the limit of the number of divisions of somatic cells, named after its discoverer Leonard Hayflick (1928-2024).
      In 1961, Leonard Hayflick observed that human cells dividing (the process of mitosis) in cell culture died after about 50 divisions and showed signs of aging as they approached this limit. (In plants, the limit is 90-95 divisions).
      The Hayflick limit is associated with a reduction in the size of telomeres, sections of DNA at the ends of chromosomes.
      As is known, the DNA molecule is capable of replication before each cell division.
      At the same time, the telomeres at its ends are shortened after each cell division.
      The cell contains the enzyme telomerase, the activity of which can ensure the lengthening of telomeres, while the life of the cell is also extended.
      Cells in which telomerase functions (sex, cancer) are immortal.
      In ordinary (somatic) cells, which are what the body mainly consists of, telomerase “does not work”, so the telomeres shorten with each cell division, which ultimately leads to its death within the Hayflick limit, because another enzyme, DNA polymerase, is not able to replicate the ends of the DNA molecule.

      The storyline of the novel by Honoré de Balzac - «The Skin of Shagreen» (French La Peau de Chagrin, 1830-1831), is somewhat similar to the process of reaching the Hayflick limit by dividing cells of the body. After each wish is magically fulfilled, the shagreen skin shrinks, which is reminiscent of the process of shortening telomeres (after each cell division), which are located at the ends of the DNA molecule.

      In the novel: With each magical fulfillment of a wish, the shagreen skin contracts and consumes part of the protagonist's physical energy until he ceases to exist.

      In real life: Starting at a certain age (which depends on nutrition, ecology, genetics, speed and other characteristics of cellular metabolism, current state of physical health, lifestyle, psychological state, physical and creative activity), a person begins to show signs of aging as they approach the Hayflick limit, as a result of ongoing cell division, which is associated with the shortening of telomeres of DNA molecules.

Surprisingly, cells of some living organisms can improve DNA repair and `blur` the Hayflick limit:

4.2. What factors significantly complicate the artificial modeling of the neocortex?:

      4.2.1. Morphogenetic basis of brain function, not electronic, quantum or other.
      ((Hermann Haken described biological models of SYNERGETIC (SELF-ORGANIZING) PULSE ANALOGUE COMPUTERS (Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs)) with the ability to flexibly adapt their configuration to the requirements of the problem being solved, as well as change the operating modes associated with the participation of certain biochemical substances in the process, when exposed to various internal or external factors on the body).
      Any fresh thought is a product of morphogenesis, formation of new neural connections (dendrites, synapses), ( axon).
      The brain is not programmed, but adapts to environmental conditions.
      That is, the fields and areas of the neocortex of the brain have a changeable, unstable, adaptive design - the structure of neural connections is formed (self-organizes) not according to a strictly defined program, but in accordance with the desired goal, which is formed by the process of thinking or spontaneously, when functioning according to ready-made algorithms and rest.

      `To figure it out` means to form such new synaptic connections between distant areas of the neocortex, in which very distant and different information is stored, that `insight` , `revelation`, `clarification`, `understanding of sense` can happen.
      A `brilliant` thought will not come so easily, it must be forced to `come`, those you have to live with this thought for a very long time to wait for the formation of new synaptic connections, and start the process of synergy (self-organization, synthesis).
      Then you will be able to see a new pattern where you have not seen it before.
      A computer does not have such morphogenetic features (in most cases, NN in AI systems use the principle of `universal data classifier`, for their further processing).
      No matter what a person does, new synaptic connections will still form randomly, but to direct their formation according to the rule of Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb in the right directions (orienting) is possible only with long-term mental activity in the chosen direction (of course, with breaks for rest and other activities)(this is the local adaptation of neural connections (synapses) to time-limited influence).

      The original formulation of Hebb's rule: «When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased».

      Hebb's rule shows the morphogenetic adaptation of both excitable cell A and excitable cell B, when cell B is excited by a nearby axon (this also applies to nearby dendrites) of cell A.

      This morphogenetic adaptation (some process of growth or metabolic changes in one or both cells (their membranes)) to excitation (a series of propagation of ACTION POTENTIALS along the membrane of an axon (dendrite)), with a high probability will lead to the formation of a new neural connection (synapse) between nearby areas of the membranes of cells A and B (this can be the morphogenesis of areas of membranes A and B: the body (soma), axon, dendrites).

      Thus, Hebb's rule is one of the cases of synergy (self-organization) of a neural connection (synapse), where the decisive factors for synergy are: a small distance between any areas of the membranes of the components of the 2 excitable cells, and, initially, the presence of excitation in one of the excitable cells.

      It is possible to designate the order parameters that contribute to such synergy (self-organization) of the neural connection (synapse) between the membrane sections of the components of excitable cells A and B, these are:
      ● Small distance between the membrane sections of the components of excitable cells A and B.
      ● Repeated electrical ACTION POTENTIALS on a nearby (to the membrane section of the component of excitable cell B) membrane section of the component of excitable cell A.

      If the distance between the sections of the membranes of the components of excitable cells A and B is small, then, upon depolarization of the section of the membrane of excitable cell A, outside a small section of its membrane, the local concentrations of positively charged potassium ions increase for the axon, and for dendrites - other ions (see below).
      This local concentration of positively charged ions outside, in the adjacent layer of the membrane of cells A and B, becomes the cause of depolarization of the section of the membrane of the component of excitable cell B, that is the reason for the appearance of an ACTION POTENTIAL on it - a `Spike`.

      Neurons perceive irritation (afferent, sensory, receptor, or centripetal neurons) and transmit excitation to muscles, skin, other tissues, organs (efferent, motor, motor, or centrifugal neurons).
     Nerve tissues ensure the coordinated functioning of the body.

      Excitable cells are considered to be:
      ● Nerve cell (conduction of excitation).
      ● Muscle tissue cells (contraction).
      ● Glandular tissue (secretion, exocrine glands).

      Excitation has been most fully studied in nerve and muscle cells, where it is accompanied by the emergence of an ACTION POTENTIAL (AP) - `Spike`, capable of spreading along the entire cell membrane without attenuation (decrementless).

      During intensive mental activity, in certain associative areas and morphofunctional fields of the neocortex, associated with the problem under consideration (where images with similar concepts, processes, experiences are encountered), blood flow increases, which affects the more intensive formation of synapses (synaptogenesis).
      At the same time, the limbic system can secrete various endogenous substances that have a positive or negative effect on the EMOTIONAL STATE of a person (through chemical modulation of ACTION POTENTIALS - `SpikeS`, in chemical synapses).

      During these processes of mental activity, various feelings (emotions) can arise and in certain areas of the brain, blood flow increases, which affects the more intensive formation of synapses (synaptogenesis).

      During moments of rest or brain work according to previously mastered algorithms, synapses are formed at a random moment in time, therefore, for example, if at this moment, the formation of synaptic connections, You saw an idiotic advertisement on TV, then you will remember it for the rest of your life (the advertisement will be `written` into long-term memory), and you will not be able to remember the information on studying a foreign language that was received before this moment.

      Neurons cannot be compared to `computer hardware` - a rigidly predetermined hardware part of a computer with the help of which information is processed.
      Neurons of certain morphofunctional fields of the neocortex generate thoughts, and these thoughts are associated with the formation of new neural (synaptic) connections (and the configuration of neural connections expresses a new unexpected thought or memorization of something).
      Each neuron is unique in its constantly changing distributed structure: different axon lengths, different numbers of dendrites, synapses and their different configurations, which determine the individual variability of the architecture and subcortical structures of the brain.

      A single neuron consists of parts: the cell body (soma), an axon with one or more synapses at the end, a tree-like branching network of dendrites, at the ends of which synapses (neural connections) can form.

      All these fragments of a single neuron have a COMMON MEMBRANE, which:

      ● unexcited local areas have an electrical RESTING POTENTIAL ;

      ● and when any sections of the membrane are excited, an electrical ACTION POTENTIAL (DEPOLARIZATION OF A SECTION OF THE MEMBRANE) appears on them, which spreads further along the membrane at a certain speed in one direction or another.

      In nervous tissue, an electrical action potential typically occurs during depolarization - if the depolarization of the neuron membrane reaches or exceeds a certain threshold level (electrical action potential), the cell is excited, and a wave of electrical signal propagates from its body to the axons and dendrites.

     Parameters of electrical ACTION POTENTIALS (`SpikeS`): pulse repetition frequency, pulse block duration, propagation speed (determined by the type of ions involved in the transmission, ion pumps, the presence of nodes of Ranvier, ...).

      The magnitude of the ACTION POTENTIAL (AP) (`Spike`) fluctuates within 80–130 mV, the duration of the AP peak of a nerve fiber is 0.5–1 ms, skeletal muscle fibers – up to 10 ms, the duration of AP of the cardiac muscle is 300–400 ms. The action potential occurs when a threshold stimulus force is applied. The amplitude of the AP does not depend on the strength of the stimulus that causes it.

      ANALOG COMPUTING STRUCTURE OF EACH NEURON of the neocortex, includes:

      ● the common membrane of the BODY (SOMA) of the neuron;

      ● common membrane of the AXON (with nodes of Ranvier), which ends in one or more chemical synapses;

      ● a common membrane of a tree-like branching network of DENDRITES, many of which end in chemical synapses that can form or degrade;

      ● a common membrane of halves of chemical SYNAPSES, which are chemical modulators of the electrical ACTION POTENTIAL.
      Modulation of the electrical ACTION POTENTIAL (`Spike`) in the SYNAPSE mainly depends on the EMOTIONAL and PHYSIOLOGICAL (NORMAL or PATHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING OF PARTS OF THE ORGANISM) STATE of a person (determined by endogenous substances secreted by the limbic system and other parts of the body)(also, unidirectional signal conduction and its time delay of 0.2-0.4 ms are realized).
      (Exogenous substances entering the body from the outside, for example, with food, can also have an effect).

      ● a multitude of chemical SYNAPSES at the ends of DENDRITES, in addition to the function of chemical modulation of the signal - ACTION POTENTIAL, perform the functions of both input and output for electrical ACTION POTENTIALS from neighboring, or more distant NEURONS, as well as between their dendrites ();
      Neurons encode signal intensity by increasing the frequency of ACTION POTENTIAL impulses (Spikes).
      Chemical synapses are very common in nature.
      The synapse is structured more complex, since a system is required to convert an electrical impulse into a chemical signal, and then back into an electrical impulse.
      All this leads to the emergence of a synaptic delay, which can be 0.2-0.4 ms.
      In addition, depletion of the chemical substance reserves can occur, which will lead to synapse fatigue.
      However, such a synapse ensures unidirectional transmission of ACTION POTENTIALS (Spikes), which is its main advantage.
      A chemical synapse conducts a nerve impulse strictly in one direction: from the presynaptic membrane (axon terminal) to the postsynaptic membrane (target cell).
      This is ensured Asymmetry: the neurotransmitter (transmitter) is found only in vesicles on the presynaptic side, and the receptors are on the postsynaptic side.
      In addition to the classic synapses between axons and dendrites or their spines, there are also synapses that modulate transmission at other synapses.
      These include axo-axonal synapses.
      Such synapses can enhance or inhibit synaptic transmission.
      That is, if an action potential (AP) arrives at the end of an axon forming an axo-spiny synapse, and at the same time an inhibitory signal arrives at it through the axo-axonal synapse, the neurotransmitter will not be released at the axo-spiny synapse.
      Axo-dendritic synapses can alter the conduction of AP membrane events on the way from the spine to the cell soma.
      There are also axo-somatic synapses that can influence signal summation in the soma region neuron.
      Thus, there is a huge variety of different synapses, differing in the composition of neurotransmitters, receptors, and their location.
      All this ensures the diversity of reactions and plasticity of the nervous system.

      ● For chemical TRANSMISSION and MODULATION of the signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL) from the presynaptic membrane to the postsynaptic membrane of the SYNAPSE, neurotransmitters (neuromediators) and neuromodulators.
      Some neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are produced in limbic system of the brain, the rest - in other parts of the body.
      The level of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the body is not stable, it constantly fluctuates depending on biorhythms, just like the hormonal level.
      Excitatory neurotransmitters, that is, those that are necessary for activating the body, usually have a high level in the morning.
      And, conversely, inhibitory neurotransmitters and neuromodulators reach their peak at night.
      An imbalance of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (psychosomatic disorders) may be associated with burnout syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome and mood changes, abdominal pain, headache, loss of concentration, the occurrence of Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis or Alzheimer's disease ...
      In order for the body to produce the required amount of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, it must have enough substances from which they are formed, and, also, the level of their production may depend on the EMOTIONAL STATE OF A PERSON, which, in turn, depends on endogenous substances secreted by the limbic system.
      Receptors for neurotransmitters (or neuromodulators) are protein complexes located on the cell membrane.
      The receptor and neurotransmitter (or neuromodulator) interact like a key and a lock, or like puzzle pieces, and this triggers a signaling cascade - the cell (neuron) `understands` what it was told.
      Narcotic substances, caffeine, and alcohol can also attach to neurotransmitter receptors (this is a clarification for understanding the development of negative addictions).
      Then the neurotransmitters are destroyed by enzymes or absorbed by neurons - these processes control the duration of the signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL) transmitted to the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite (which is a section of the general membrane of the neuron).
      It is these processes that some pharmacological drugs act to treat, for example, depression.
      For example, classic antidepressants are inhibitors of the reuptake of the neurotransmitter - serotonin.
      They do not allow serotonin (neurotransmitter) to quickly disappear from the place of contact, prolonging its effect on neurons.

      ● the chemical SYNAPSE (SYNAPSES) at the end of the AXON, in addition to the function of chemical modulation of the signal - ACTION POTENTIAL, is an output for the electrical ACTION POTENTIAL to distant innervated organs or other nerve cells (for example, to a neuron in another morphofunctional field of the neocortex);

      ● the potential of a small section of the common membrane can change under the influence of various stimuli:
      - an artificial stimulus can be an electric current supplied to the outer or inner side of the membrane through an electrode;
      - in natural conditions, a stimulus is often a chemical signal from neighboring cells entering through a synapse;
      - or by diffuse transmission of a chemical signal through the intercellular environment;
      (the shift of the membrane potential can occur in the negative (hyperpolarization) or positive (depolarization) side);

      ● the total charge on the inner side of the common membrane section is significantly less than on the outer side, although both sides contain cations and anions:
      - outside - an order of magnitude more ions of SODIUM, calcium and chlorine;
      - inside - ions of POTASSIUM and negatively charged protein molecules, amino acids, organic acids, phosphates, sulfates.
      (It should be understood that we are talking specifically about the charge of the membrane surface - in general, the environment both inside and outside the cell is neutrally charged, and the membrane RESTING POTENTIAL has a negative value (about -70 - -90 mV).)
      (It should be noted that these studies relate to a greater extent to the AXON, since its transverse diameter is much larger than that of the dendrites, which made it possible to study its parameters in easier ways, and Features of the DENDRITIC ACTION POTENTIAL (DENDRITIC `SPICE`), see below.);

      ● when a small section of the common membrane is excited, it is depolarized, and if a certain threshold level is reached or exceeded, then:

      - INSIDE a small section of the common membrane, local concentrations of positively charged SODIUM ions increase;
      (membrane depolarization primarily causes the opening of potential-dependent sodium channels, when enough sodium channels open at the same time, positively charged sodium ions rush through them to the inner side of the membrane);

      - OUTSIDE a small area of the common membrane, local concentrations of positively charged POTASSIUM ions increase;
      (there are four main classes potassium channels :
      - calcium-activated potassium channels - open in response to the presence of calcium ions or other signaling molecules;
      - inwardly rectifying potassium channels - allow potassium ions to enter the cell;
      - two-pore potassium channel - these are permanently open or constitutively present channels in the membrane, such as resting channels or leaky channels, establishing a negative membrane potential at neuron;
      - potential-dependent potassium channels - open in response to a change in transmembrane potential);

      ● further, distribution occurs nerve impulse - ACTION POTENTIAL along the common membrane;

      ● refractory period ;
     (In electrophysiology, the refractory period (refractory period) is the period of time after the occurrence of an ACTION POTENTIAL on an excitable membrane, during which the excitability of the membrane decreases and then gradually returns to its original level.)

       ● features of the dendritic network - dendritic action potential ;
      Three main types of dendritic `Spikes` (propagating along the membrane of the dendrite ACTION POTENTIALS), according to the class of active conductors underlying them:
      - Na(+) (plateau-`Spikes`);
      - Ca(2+) (plateau-`Spikes`);
      - N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA-`Spikes`).

      Although different electrical properties, channel types and diversity of dendritic morphology give rise to different dendritic ACTION POTENTIALS, with different rise times and durations, dendritic `Spikes` have properties characteristic of classical (axon) ACTION POTENTIALS:
      - they have an excitation threshold;
      - a refractory period;
      - actively propagate over a certain distance.

      A dendritic `Spike` is a nonlinear phenomenon that can overcome the influence of other synapses and prevent the integration of additional input synaptic impulses, appearing as a result of local summation of synchronized clusters of input signals to the dendrite.
      Dendritic `Spikes` are usually much slower than axonal ACTION POTENTIALS, and are generated either in isolation from the soma (local `Spikes`), or coinciding with axonal backpropagation action potentials.
      If a dendritic `Spike` is strong enough, it can propagate to the neuron's soma and lead to the generation of a somato-axon action potential, or even bursts of action potentials (several `Spikes`).

      The existence of dendritic `Spikes` significantly increases the repertoire of computational functions of the general membrane of a neuron, making it possible:
      - functional associations of local input signals;
      - amplification remote synaptic impulses that otherwise could not have an effect on the somatic potential;
      - influence stimulation of synaptic plasticity.

      ● Ion channels cell membrane of all living cells.
      Ion channels are pore-forming proteins (single or entire complexes) that maintain the potential difference that exists between the outer and inner sides of the cell membrane of all living cells.
      They are classified as transport proteins. With their help, ions move along their electrochemical gradients across the membrane.
      Ions of Na(+) (sodium), K(+) (potassium), Cl(−) (chlorine) and Ca(2+) (calcium) pass through the ion channels.
      Due to the opening and closing of the ion channels, the concentration of ions on different sides of the membrane changes and the membrane potential shifts.

      ● Ionic pumps cell membranes of all living cells.
      Ionic pumps are integral proteins that provide active transport of ions against the concentration gradient .
      The energy for transport is the energy of ATP hydrolysis.
      There are:
      - Na(+) / K(+) pump (pumps Na(+) out of the cell in exchange for K(+)).
      - Ca(2+) pump (pumps Ca(2+) out of the cell).
      - Cl(–) pump (pumps Cl(–) out of the cell).

      Thus, ANALOG COMPUTING STRUCTURE OF EACH NEURON is
      part of a SPATIALLY DISTRIBUTED ANALOG PROCESSOR WITH:

      - THE BODY (SOMA) OF THE NEURON;

      - AXON (ENDING WITH A CHEMICAL SYNAPSE (SYNAPSES));

      - A UNIQUE, CONSTANTLY CHANGING CONFIGURATION OF A TREE-LIKE BRANCHING NETWORK OF DENDRITES, MANY OF WHICH END WITH FORMED CHEMICAL SYNAPSE.

     The functions of such an analog processor include:
      propagation / modulation, time delay, unidirectionality in chemical synapses / control of the quantity and frequency of signal impulses (electrical action potentials (Spikes)), many of which can propagate simultaneously and "in parallel" along common areas of the membrane, the network of dendrites, the neuron body (soma), and the axon.

      Many intermediate results of calculations of the analog values of the parameters of electrical ACTION POTENTIALS (`Spikes`) on the membranes of dendrites of a single neuron can be both transmitted (and modulated) and received (and modulated) through chemical synapses at the endings of dendrites to the membranes of the network of dendrites of surrounding neurons in the association areas and morphofunctional fields of the neocortex.

      The final, integrated result of calculating the analog values of the parameters of the electrical ACTION POTENTIAL (`Spike`) on the membrane of a single neuron is transmitted (and modulated) through a chemical synapse (synapses) at the ending of the axon to distant innervated neurons organs or other nerve cells (for example, to the membrane of a neuron in another morphofunctional field or to the membrane of a neuron in the association area of the neocortex).

     If, to consider in more detail the features of functioning:
ARTIFICIALLY CREATED ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINES

, then, it can be noted that the problem to be solved (class of problems):
RIGIDLY determined by the internal structure of the ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINE and the settings made (connections, installed modules, valves, etc.).

     Even for universal ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINES, when solving a new problem, it is necessary to MANUALLY RECONSTRUCTE the internal structure of the device.

     Also, (unlike digital computers), a feature of the ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINE is the absence of a stored program, under the control of which a variety of problems can be solved using the same computer.
     The program of calculations (actions) of the ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINE is RIGIDLY determined by the configuration of the internal device of the ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINE and the settings made (connections, installed modules, valves, etc.).

     Differences in the functioning of the neuron of the neocortex from artificially created ANALOG COMPUTING MACHINES:
THE NEOCORTEX NEURON IS AN ANALOG PROCESSOR WITH A UNIQUE, CONSTANTLY CHANGING TREE CONFIGURATION A BRANCHING NETWORK OF DENDRITES, MANY OF WHICH END IN FORMED CHEMICAL SYNAPSES.

     RECONSTRUCTION OF THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A NEURON is carried out by changing (reconnecting) or creating new neural connections (SYNAPSES) spontaneously, or under the influence of training and other factors (according to Hebb's rule), which, flexibly and adaptively, `adapts` the internal structure of the ANALOG PROCESSOR (NEURON) to the possibility of `PERCEIVE` / `LEARNING` / `MODELING` / `ANALYSIS` / `ADAPTATION` to a NEW SITUATION -
     CHANGES THE COMPUTATIONAL ALGORITHM (PROGRAM) of a single NEURON.

      Thus, analog computation programs (while awake, in a given period of time) are synthesized in each neuron (by changing the cytoarchitecture of the cell), and, in general - when mastering new skills or thinking, in the involved specific morphofunctional fields and associative areas of the neocortex.

     (An extremely high degree of adaptation of the human brain and body to new situations, compared to other animals, life in society, division of labor - are an evolutionary advantage that allowed humans to settle all over the planet, despite various, in some places, unfavorable natural conditions and threats from the animal world. And, also, to master the depths of the oceans, the peaks of the highest mountains, rise to great heights in the atmosphere and exist in space outside the earth's atmosphere).

     That is, the program (operating algorithm) of this analog processor is `composed`, `created`, `corrected`, `optimized` in real time (`on the fly`), which is caused by the changeable configuration of reconnected and newly created neural connections (SYNAPSES).

     Or, in other words, any change in the configuration (architecture, cytoarchitecture) of neural connections (SYNAPSES) of a single neuron changes the PROGRAM (OPERATING ALGORITHM) of this single ANALOG PROCESSOR (neuron).

     Commutation (switching) new neural connections (changing the cytoarchitecture of a neuron) - leads to a change in the program of operation of the neural structure of an analog computer according to new algorithms, and these processes are characterized by conscious activity (when `consciousness` is active, which occurs in the waking state).
     These states are associated with the emergence of new neural connections (synapses), both spontaneously (at the moments of work according to mastered deterministic algorithms (deduction)), and, with the emergence of `fresh thoughts` (intensive thinking (induction), followed by synergy).

     Decommutation of neural connections (change in neuron cytoarchitecture) - leads to a change in the operating program of the neural structure of the analog computer, eliminating rarely used algorithms, and these processes are characterized by a complete shutdown of consciousness, there is even no sensitivity to smells (and they occur in the phases of slow sleep).
     These conditions are associated with the degradation of rarely used neural connections (synapses), and the removal of accumulated chemical reaction waste by the glymphatic system (metabolism products).
     The calculated signals from the common membranes of the tree-like branching network of dendrites (`Spikes` - electrical ACTION POTENTIALS on the membrane) arrive at the common membrane of the body (soma) of the neuron, which can be connected through chemical synapses (signal modulators that act as inputs or outputs for `Spikes`) with other neurons and with their own dendrites.

     And, this integrated signal (`Spike`), then, spreads along the common membrane of the body (soma) of the neuron to the common membrane of the axon with the nodes of Ranvier, through a chemical synapse (synapses), to distant innervated organs or other nerve cells (for example, to the membrane of a neuron in another morphofunctional field or to the membrane of a neuron in the associative region of the neocortex).

     This, for example, leads to the contraction of certain muscles of the body with the necessary ((calculated number and frequency of Spikes)) force and a certain number of times (calculated number of impulses and repetition frequency - `Spikes`). (For example, muscles of the arms, fingers, legs, feet, trunk, neck, larynx, eyes, face, ears, etc.).

     Also, the calculated integrated `Spikes` from the membrane of the body (soma) of a neuron, along the membrane of the axon with the nodes of Ranvier, through a chemical synapse (synapses), can spread to the membrane of a neuron in another morphofunctional field or to the membrane of a neuron in the associative region of the neocortex, and, there, be `processed`, `corrected`, `compared`, `influence the calculations` of other `Spikes`, `remain` in the part of short-term associative memory, `copied` into the part of long-term associative memory (hippocampus), ..., spread further, ...

     It should be noted that during periods of relaxed wakefulness, or existence according to ready-made, well-established algorithms (programs, `templates`, `automatically` (deductive logical inference - application of an already known `general regularities` to a `special` case)):
     biological (instinctive-hormonal), industrial, sports, psychological, ideological, social, religious, combining ready-made solutions, with `rational thinking` almost turned off ..., when there is no need to invent something new, the growth of `dendritic trees` in neurons in the neocortex occurs spontaneously, and the formation of neural connections (SYNAPSES), in this case, also occurs spontaneously (morphogenesis).

     If, however, a person is intensively trying to create something new (or to rediscover something that has already been created, but unknown to him), which has not yet existed in society or in nature
     (inductive logical inference (induction) - generalization of a `special` case to a new `general pattern`)):

     ● Reflects on a problem, ... (for example, develops new principles of operation of devices in engineering; puts forward, works out, proves hypotheses in science; ...).

     ● Composes literary works - prose, poetry, ...

     ● Composes musical works, develops and works out scenarios for roles-reincarnations in theatrical productions, ...

     ● Studies foreign languages.

     ● Creates works of fine art, calligraphy, sculpture, decorative and applied art, industrial design, architecture, ...

     ● Engaged in physical activities related to the development and implementation of NEW complex biomechanical movements that are associated with the intensive work of the sensory and motor morphofunctional fields of the neocortex: choreography, ballet, dance, gymnastics, acrobatics, some other sports, ...

     ● Creates or solves puzzles that use operations with visual images that require concentration and attention, develops new strategies for playing chess, checkers, backgammon, poker, ..., develops new mathematical concepts,

then, in the neurons of the morphofunctional fields of the neocortex involved in the work and in certain parts of the associative areas of the neocortex (already containing some preliminary knowledge about the concepts and processes associated with the problem under consideration),
blood circulation increases.

     As a result, to the neurons in these parts, through the auxiliary cells of the nervous tissue - neuroglia, more oxygen is supplied
(oxygen consumption by the entire brain can reach up to 30% of the total consumption by the body),
as well as nutrients
(`building materials` that are necessary for the formation of new neural connections (DENDRITES and SYNAPSES)
- proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, water, electrolytes (minerals), ...).

     These factors allow for more intensive formation of neural connections (SYNAPSES) in these areas, according to the rule of Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb (1949, book The Organization of Behavior - `neurons that fire together, communicate with each other`).

     And, during periods of rest, from such mental efforts (although the internal work of finding a solution to the problem partially and imperceptibly continues in the `background`), spontaneous neural connections (SYNAPSES) with distant neurons (implementation of the principle of `arbitrary thinking`) can appear, which do not necessarily contain any preliminary images of knowledge associated with the problem being solved, but contain images of knowledge from completely different areas (and, then, a similar, analogous principle of solving a problem from a completely different area of knowledge can potentially appear).

     Next, the synergetic principle will work, self-organization of neural connections (SYNAPSES) occurs to their level suitable for new functioning, due to the increase in the value of the order parameters to a critical value (their generalization, integration, multiplication).

     Thus, part of the set of elements (SYNAPSES) moves from the area of greater scale to the quality of neural connections (SYNAPSES), to the area of greater functionality, which allows you to find or `calculate` a solution to the problem.

     It is important to understand the features of the propagation of many multidirectional electrical ACTION POTENTIALS along the common membrane in parts of a neuron (and this is the body (soma), axon, networks of dendrites, many synapses at the ends of most dendrites):

     ● The cell membrane of all living cells contains ion channels that selectively pass certain ions and are vaguely reminiscent of semiconductors.

     ● A chemical synapse is a chemical transmission link and a chemical modulator of a signal (electric ACTION POTENTIAL on a section of the membrane at any part of the neuron), which `arrives` to the presynaptic membrane from the membrane of the `input` dendrite (or axon) and spreads further from the postsynaptic membrane of the synapse, along the membrane of the `output` dendrite (or other part of the neuron).
     (The concepts of `input` dendrite and `output` dendrite are conditional, since their roles can change, in another situation, to the opposite).

     ● Modulation of the signal (electric ACTION POTENTIAL on a section of the membrane near some part of the neuron) can be a change in the values of its parameters: calculated number and frequency of Spikes ...

     ● For chemical transmission and modulation of a signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL on a membrane section near any part of a neuron), neurotransmitters (neuromediators) and neuromodulators (which differ in both types and quantity) are released into the synaptic cleft from synaptic vesicles (small bubble containers).

     ● A chemical synapse can transmit a signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL on a membrane section near any part of a neuron), with its intermediate chemical modulation, equally in both directions.

     ● A dendrite (or axon) can transmit a signal (electrical ACTION POTENTIAL on a membrane section near some part of a neuron), equally in both directions.

     ● If 2 signals (electrical ACTION POTENTIALS on membrane sections near some parts of a neuron) arrive simultaneously from both sides at a chemical synapse (on its two membranes), then a greater, but also indefinite amount (and types) of neurotransmitters (neuromediators) and neuromodulators will be released from synaptic vesicles from both parts of the synapse membranes, which may affect the alignment parameters of 2 signals `leaving` the synapse along the membranes of opposite dendrites.

     At each moment in time, on the membrane of the body (soma) of the neuron cell, a certain ACTION POTENTIAL may be present, which then spreads along the axon to innervated organs or other nerve cells (for example, to a neuron in another morphofunctional field of the neocortex).

     If an axon in nervous tissue connects with:

     ● the body of the next nerve cell, such contact is called axo-somatic;
     ● with dendrites, such contact is called axo-dendritic;
     ● with another axon, such contact is called axo-axonal (a rare type of connection, found in the central nervous system).

     The terminal sections of the axon — the terminals — branch and contact other nerve, muscle, or glandular cells. At the end of the axon there are one or more synaptic endings — the terminal section of the terminal that contacts the target cell. Together with the postsynaptic membrane of the target cell, the synaptic ending forms a synapse. Excitation is transmitted through synapses.

      It is also worth noting that each neuron always has a moment of uncertainty in its state, associated with the random formation of several new neural connections or the degradation of several old neural connections during the day, which can contribute, in certain fields of the neocortex, to `arbitrary thinking` (stochastic, probabilistic, random), and also to implement the concept of indeterminism (incompatibilist theories) - `Free Will`.

      It is necessary to understand that a neuron can have several primary dendrites (which are divided into secondary ones, and, further, many more divisions occur) and usually only one axon.

      Axon is a process of a neuron that transmits an impulse through itself (membrane action potential (to accelerate transmission, `Nodes of Ranvier` are used)), which spreads from the body (soma) of the neuron cell to another neuron. (The length of the axon of the human peripheral nervous system can exceed 1 m, and can be even longer in large animals).

      In addition, axons perform a transport role - this is the movement of various biological material along the axon of a nerve cell ( Axonal transport - many neurodegenerative diseases are directly related to disturbances in the functioning of this system).

      Dendrites (primary, secondary, ...) are receiving processes, they collect impulses from other neurons and transmit them to the body (soma) of the neuron (although in reality some dendrites conduct a signal in two directions, to the body and from the body of the neuron).

      Moreover, one single dendrite receives signals from many neurons, from hundreds to thousands.

      A portion of free dendrites that have not yet formed synaptic connections, during periods of wakefulness, are constantly in a state of growth and connection-formation of new synapses.

      One neuron can have connections with many (according to https://brainmicroscopy.com/en/ - from 100,000 to 1,000,000) other neurons through synapses, since a relatively small number of primary dendrites branches into many secondary dendrites, which in turn, also branch further and further.

      Dendrites divide dichotomous , axons give collaterals.

      Mitochondria are usually concentrated in branching nodes.

      At different parts of the membranes of the branched network of dendrites (this also applies to the membrane of the neuron's body (soma)), membrane resting potentials can change (for example, due to sensory stimuli, a section of the membrane is depolarized), membrane action potentials appear ("Spikes" are the physiological basis of a nerve impulse, "Spikes" are a mechanism that allows neurons to transmit information over relatively large distances within themselves), which are caused (for simplicity, a "Spike" on the axon membrane is usually considered; for dendrites, the variety of ions involved is wider):

      ● local concentrations of positively charged potassium ions (inside the dendrite membrane at rest, and outside dendrite membranes during nerve impulse propagation);

      ● local concentrations of positively charged sodium ions (outside the dendrite membrane in the resting state, and inside the dendrite membrane during nerve impulse propagation).

      Positively charged potassium and sodium ions have different electrical potentials, which creates a potential difference on the cell membrane (like in capacitors), and it is approximately 70 mV or 0.07 V.

      The resting membrane potential is a deficit of positive charges inside the cell, which occurs due to the work of sodium-potassium pump (or other ion pumps) and (to a greater extent) the subsequent leakage of positive potassium ions from the cell.

      A `Spike` is a wave of excitation moving along the membrane of a living cell in the form of a short-term change in the membrane potential in a small area of the excitable cell (and changes in the membrane potential occur due to changes in the concentration of potassium and sodium ions (and for dendrites and other ions, see above) inside and outside the cell membrane (dendrite or neuron body (soma)).

      A `Spike` on the membrane of each dendrite can have, depending on its chemical generation in the synapse and its intersection with other Spikes during propagation along the membranes of dendrites, different action potentials (they can be strengthened or weakened, depending on the local concentration of potassium and sodium ions (and, for dendrites, other ions, see above) on both sides of the membrane of the dendrite, although, for simplicity, it is generally assumed that the amplitudes of the action potentials ("Spikes") are identical; only the frequency of their pulses plays a role in transmitting the intensity of the signal).
      A `Spike` on the membrane of each dendrite can propagate in different directions:

      ● from the synapse to the membrane of the body (soma) of the neuron through the membranes of the dendritic branches of secondary and primary dendrites;

      ● from a synapse to other synapses, through the membranes of multiple dendritic branches of secondary dendrites;

      ● from the membrane of the neuron body (soma) to synapses, through the membranes of dendritic primary and secondary dendrites;

      ● from the neuron membrane along the axon with By the nodes of Ranvier;

      ● to the membrane of the dendrite, through the membranes of the dendritic secondary dendrites from the membranes of other dendrites.

      Thus:

     ● In a unidirectional chemical synapse, a nerve impulse is transmitted chemically through neurotransmitters (neuromediators) and neuromodulators, which excite a membrane electrical action potential on the postsynaptic membrane (during synaptic transmission, the number of impulses and signal delay can change).
      If, in the process of neurotransmission, a `Spike` arrives from a dendrite (nerve ending) to the presynaptic membrane of a chemical synapse, then from the synaptic vesicles (small vesicles-containers) neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (which differ in both types and quantity) are released.
      Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are released from synaptic vesicles of the presynaptic membrane of the dendrite, in response to the appearance of an action potential on the membrane of the dendrite (depolarization of its membrane), diffuse through the synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptors, causing changes in the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite (depolarization of its membrane).
      As a result, the membrane electrical action potential on the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite, which is proportional to the concentration of potassium and sodium ions inside and outside the cell membrane (which is ensured by the operation of ion pumps on the membrane), can change and propagate further along the dendrite membrane.

      ● To these `calculations` of local membrane electrical action potentials (`Spikes`), uncertainty (an element of chance) is added in the dynamic cytoarchitectonics of neural connections:
      - due to the formation of many new synapses (in the process of thinking, according to Hebb's rule - approximately 30-40 synapses for each neuron per day);
      - or destruction, disconnection, degradation, approximately 3-4 rarely used synapses for each neuron per day
(in slow phases of sleep - during the night there is a change of 4-5 cycles of slow phases of sleep, 1.5-2 hours each, and between them the phases of rapid sleep for 5-10 minutes).
      (The latest research proves that dreams also occur during slow sleep. But these dreams are shorter and less emotional. All people are able to see dreams, but they cannot always remember them after waking up).

      A team of scientists from New York University (USA) has found the "molecular glue" responsible for maintaining long-term memory.
      Memories are formed when groups of neurons in the hippocampus activate in response to a specific experience.
      Every time we remember these events, the same set of cells are activated.
      When one neuron repeatedly activates another, the connection between them is strengthened.
      This is how short-term memory gradually turns into long-term memory.

      To preserve long-term memories, brain cells produce proteins that strengthen neural connections (synapses).
      One of the most important proteins is the enzyme protein kinase Mzeta (PKMz) , which is constantly produced by neurons.
      This enzyme is attracted to strong synapses by the KIBRA molecule , which acts as a "molecular glue."
      It also calls new PKMz to replace the enzyme when it is destroyed.

      Previous studies in humans have shown that different versions of this molecule are associated with differences in memory performance.
      KIBRA was also known to interact with PKMz in the hippocampus of mice.
      A team of scientists from New York University (USA) studied this mechanism deeper...

      KIBRA is a synaptic scaffold protein that regulates learning and memory.
      Alterations in the WWC1 gene, which encodes KIBRA, cause a variety of neuronal disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and Tourette's syndrome.
      However, the molecular mechanism underlying KIBRA's function in neurons continues to be studied...

      In areas of the neocortex associated with hearing, the frequency of impulses between neurons reaches 200 impulses per second.
      In other morphofunctional fields of the neocortex, the frequency of impulses between neurons can be much lower, especially through axons that form extended connections with relatively distant areas.
      The speed of movement of a nerve impulse along a slow fiber is limited to approximately two meters per second, while along a fast fiber the signal accelerates to 120 meters per second (on average - from 20 to 70 m/s).
      This property is associated with the insulating winding of the nerve by another type of nervous system cell - oligodendrocytes or Schwann cells (Ranvier interceptions, see above).

      At each moment in time, some of the potentially possible neural connections in the morphofunctional fields and associative zones of the neocortex do not always have deterministic states, since these neural connections are possible:
         - have not yet been formed;
         - are in the process of connecting or reconnecting;
         - are connected and functioning (but, modulation of chemical signals through an undefined qualitative and quantitative composition of neurotransmitter and neuromodulator complexes, inside synaptic clefts - non-deterministic);
         - are already performing the degradation process.

      From this it follows that neural connections in the fields of the neocortex are formed and destroyed according to the principles of a changing, open architecture, and their work cannot be equated to the work of neural connections in a rigidly defined architecture of existing models of NN AI.

      (In some way, these principles of a changeable, dynamic, natural and unfinished architecture of neural connections resemble the architectural style of Antonio Gaudi).

      Thus, in the case of solving a truly new problem, the brain does not work according to already mastered algorithms, but `invents` new algorithms `on the fly`, in the process of thinking.
`Technically`, at some point in time, biological synergy (self-organization) of neural connections (synapses) occurs, which are formed during the growth of new dendrites from neurons or from other dendrites (according to Hebb's rule (see below) or at least a process associated with it).

      The process of solving a new complex scientific problem does not happen in an instant, and thoughts related to the awareness of the relationships of `entities` in this problem can `circulate` in the neocortex for a long time, `growing` certain new neural connections (dentrites and synapses) in it.

      When thinking intensively about a problem, blood circulation increases in certain parts of the associative areas of the neocortex (which already contain some preliminary knowledge about the concepts and processes associated with the problem under consideration), and more oxygen is supplied to the neurons in these parts (oxygen consumption by the entire brain can reach up to 30% of the body's total consumption), as well as nutrients (`building materials` that are necessary for the formation of new neural connections (dendrites and synapses) - proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, water, electrolytes (minerals), ...).

      Speed synaptogenesis it is impossible to increase, you can only increase local blood flow if you think about a specific problem, which leads to more intense synaptogenesis in this local area.

      These factors allow for more intensive formation of neural connections (SYNAPSES) in these areas, according to the rule of Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb (1949, book The Organization of Behavior - `neurons that fire together, communicate with each other`).

      These can be neural connections (SYNAPSES) and with distant neurons that do not necessarily contain any prior knowledge related to the problem being solved, but contain knowledge from completely different areas (a similar, analogous solution principle may potentially manifest itself).

      Next, the synergetic principle will work, self-organization of neural connections to their level suitable for new functioning occurs, due to an increase in the value of order parameters to a critical value (their generalization, integration, multiplication), and, a person has an `insight`, `revelation`, `clarification`, `understanding of the sense`, a solution to the problem.

      Thus, surprisingly, physiological processes in the brain are associated with solving abstract intellectual problems (or, for example, problems of coordinating new movements in the motor areas of the brain).

      When a "critical number" of new neural connections (synapses) arises, formed according to Hebb's rule or at least related to it (this process resembles the physical process of a chain reaction in a dividing substance, for which a "critical mass" of this substance is required), in the neurons involved in solving the problem, and, by optimizing neural connections (disconnecting "weak", rarely used ones), in some stages of sleep), an understanding, "insight", "epiphany", insight, a "eureka" occurs in the researcher, since the transition from quantity (part of the set of elements moves from an area of a larger scale) to quality (to an area of greater functionality) of neural connections, which allows one to find a solution to the problem, it's like - "The puzzle is complete!" (A structure of Cause-Effect Relationships has been formed, which is modeled by a new configuration of neural connections (synapses) (changed cytoarchitecture of the neurons involved)).

      (Here, we must also take into account the weakening and disconnection of rarely used synapses during certain stages of sleep (the process is reminiscent of the work of a sculptor who, in the creative process of creating a work of art, cuts away all unnecessary parts from a marble blank)).

      Transformation of Quantitative Into Qualitative Changes.

      More precisely, the transition from an increased number of neural connections to their functional quality is described using the principles of synergetics (self-organization), in the book by Hermann Haken (see links below, 353 pages, fundamental work of 1996, a lot of mathematics, models of biological SYNERGETIC (SELF-ORGANIZING) PULSE ANALOGUE COMPUTERS (Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs)) with the ability to flexibly adapt their configuration to the requirements of the problem being solved, as well as change the operating modes associated with the participation of certain biochemical substances in the process, when exposed to various internal or external factors on the body))!!! , against existing deterministic models).
      Below are some excerpts from Hermann Haken's book that can give a general idea of the synergistic processes occurring in certain fields of the neocortex of the brain of animals and humans:
      ... One of the most striking features of self-organizing systems is their ability to form spatio-temporal structures.
      Since we consider the brain as self-organizing system that produces spatio-temporal patterns of activity, it is desirable to analyze the mechanisms of formation of these patterns from a general point of view. ...
      ... The basic principle of synergetics is the coordinated action or cooperation of parts of the system. ...
      ... The spontaneous formation of structures, as a result of self-organization, seems to contradict the second law of thermodynamics.
      (According to the second law, in so-called closed systems, macroscopic order should disappear, giving way to a homogeneous state, which at the microscopic level reveals the structure of chaotic motion).
      However, this statement is true only for closed systems that do not exchange energy or matter with the environment.
      However, biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy noted that biological systems belong to the class of open systems, whose structures and functions are maintained by the flow of energy and matter, either in the form of sunlight and substances extracted from the soil, as in plants, or in the form of nutrients and oxygen, as in animals.
      To denote this state of living matter, Ludwig von Bertalanffy proposed the term Fliessgleichgewicht (current equilibrium).
      All systems studied in synergetics can be considered as open, thereby satisfying the condition of self-organization.
      ... Near the points of loss of stability, the behavior of complex open systems is controlled by a small number of variables, namely: order parameters. ...
      ... In the synergetic model, at the level of neurons, the learning process changes the control parameters at the microscopic level.
      The control parameters are the intensities of synaptic connections, and the learning rule is identical to Hebb's rule or at least related to it.
      The emerging new dynamics generates completely new order parameters that define new, quite distinguishable patterns (templates), which determine, for example, a new type of decision-making, behavior or recognition of external signals by any sensory organs of the studied individual or human personality. ...
      ... If we compare such simple synergetic physical phenomena as thermal convection in liquid, coherent laser radiation and the like, with the complex activity of the human brain, we can find that all these systems have one common property: they have the ability to generate synergetic (self-organizing) phenomena that are distinguished by high coherence in space and time. ...

      Principles of Brain Functioning. A Synergetic Approach to Brain Activity... (Hermann Haken) Springer
      Principles of Brain Functioning. A Synergetic Approach to Brain Activity... (Hermann Haken) Amazon

      The rule of Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb (1949, book The Organization of Behavior) is `neurons that fire together, wire together`.

      Hopfield's network model (1982) , uses the same learning rule as Hebb's learning rule (1949), which characterizes learning as the result of reinforcement coefficients of statistical weights in cases of neural activity.

      The Hopfield network is a model for human associative learning and recall (the Hopfield model of associative memory).

      As the name suggests, the main goal of associative memory networks is to associate an input with the most similar example. In other words, the goal is to store and retrieve images.

      A Hopfield network (or associative memory) is a form of recurrent neural network , (or spin glass system), which can serve as content-addressable memory.

      For Hopfield networks , the Hebbian learning rule is used, which was introduced to explain "associative learning," in which the simultaneous activation of neuronal cells leads to a marked increase in the synaptic strength between these cells (this is their local adaptation to time-limited influence).

       Hebb's learning rule: "The simultaneous activation of neuronal cells results in a marked increase in the synaptic strength between these cells."

      Hebb's learning rule, in general: "Neurons that fire together wire together. Neurons that fire out of sync fail to communicate."
      Neurons "attract or repel each other" in state space.

      If the bits corresponding to 2 neurons in the Hopfield network are the same according to a given pattern, then this will have a positive effect on their statistical weight coefficients.
      The opposite happens if the bits corresponding to these 2 neurons are are different.

      J. Hopfield showed that a neural network with feedback connections can be an energy-minimizing system (Hopfield network).
      Learning a Hopfield network involves reducing the energy of the states that the network must "remember" .
      This allows the network to serve as a content-addressable memory system, i.e. the network will converge to a "remembered" state if given only part of the state.

      There are two types of Hopfield networks - discrete and continuous. Discrete network is classified as binary and bipolar network based on the output signal obtained.

      Surprisingly simple model explains how brain cells organize and connect.
      Stanford study reveals growing neurons gain an edge by making connections.
      Artificial Neural Nets Finally Yield Clues to How Brains Learn.

       Holism, synergy (systemic effect), emergence, superadditive effect natural or artificial (organic or inorganic) chaotic sets of elements, may accidentally lead to the emergence of complex ordered structures consisting of these same elements.

      The words `synergy` and `synergetic` have been used in the field of physiology since at least the mid-19th century ( Robley Dunglison, , `Medical Lexicon`, 1853).
      In 1896 Henri Mazelle , applied the term `synergy` to social psychology, writing `La synergie sociale`, in which he argued that Darwinian theory failed to explain `social synergy` or `social love`, the collective evolutionary drive.
      In 1909, Lester Frank Ward , defined SYNERGY as a universal constructive principle of nature!!!.

      Synergy (emergence, holism, systemic effect, superadditive effect) in the context of "Markov chains", are described as the emergence of global and unpredictable patterns from individual steps.

      For example, this is a stationary distribution or "patterns" that emerge from local rules (probabilities of transitions between states) during a long-term process.

      This example shows how simple rules generate complex collective behavior or macrostructures that are not explicitly embedded in any of the micro-states, but arise from their interactions and temporal dynamics, especially in ergodic chains tending toward a predictable stationary state.

      ("Ergodic chains" (Markov chains) — are a special class of processes in Markov chains, characterized by the fact that over time they "forget" the initial state and arrive at a stationary distribution, with each point in the system passing through all other states with some probability.
The main properties of an ergodic chain: it is indecomposable (from any state it is possible to get to any other), positively recurrent (a state returns to itself), and aperiodic (there is no fixed transition period).
This allows us to average characteristics over time, rather than over a set of states).

      Key aspects of emergence through Markov chains:

      From local to global:

      Local rule:

      A Markov chain has a simple "memory" rule: the future state depends only on the current one, without taking into account the entire history.

      Global Behavior (Emergence):

      Despite locality, over a large number of steps, the system can exhibit macroscopic patterns.
      For example, in an ergodic chain, the system arrives at a stationary distribution that is independent of the initial state, exhibiting "collective" predictable behavior in the long run.

      Emergence of new Properties:

      Stationary State (Contraction into a Pattern):
      This is an emergent property where the system reaches equilibrium (e.g., the probability distribution in each "cell" becomes constant), although individual steps remain random.

      Recurrence and Periods:
      Properties of states (recurrence, aperiodicity) are emergent, determining how long the system will wander before returning to certain regions or will reach a steady state, and this cannot be understood by looking at just one transition.

      Examples of emergence:

      Crowd/market behavior:
      If each "agent" state follows a simple rule (e.g., "follow the majority"), the emergent result can be a sharp trend change or panic (a shift in the macrostate).

      PageRank Algorithm:

      Essentially, this is an ergodic Markov chain, where a "random surfer (web user)" constantly navigates between links.
      The emergent property is the importance of pages (rank), which arises from these random walks, not from the direct content of the page.

      As described:

      Modeling:

      A Markov chain with given transition probabilities (local rules) is created.

      Analysis:

      The properties of this chain in the long term are studied (stationary distribution, time return).

      Interpretation:

      Global outcomes (e.g., the final probability distribution) are interpreted as emergent properties that were not explicitly programmed, but arose from the system's dynamics.
      Emergence here is the transition from micro-rules (the transition probability between Si and Sj) to macro-regularities (the stationary distribution (Pi (The number))), which describes the behavior of the entire system.

___

      Synergy (and similar processes listed above) can be compared to something like pseudo-induction (targeting (direction of thinking) at similar manifestation of features (parameters, facts) and their subsequent generalization, but not in the human logical thought system, but (integration (`generalization`) of the values of certain parameters of `order`) in natural or artificial (organic or inorganic) chaotic sets of elements), which corresponds to the effect of integration (unification) and a significant joint growth of the values of the `order` parameters of one physical type in a chaotic set of elements, leading to the self-organization of a chaotic set of elements into an ordered structure consisting of the same elements.

      Even more complex versions of synergy - upon reaching certain values of the `order` parameters of one physical type (which are most often determined at the micro level), in a chaotic set of elements may have an amplifying effect of interaction between two or more factors (which depend on the quantitative values of the parameters of these factors, which are in a cause-and-effect relationship with each other), leading to the self-organization of a chaotic set of elements into an ordered structure consisting of the same elements.

      How information is related to parameters - information is determined by a number of values of certain:
      - parameters of a chaotic set of elements, when there is less information about a chaotic set of elements (low values of certain `order` parameters) and more entropy (measure of chaos) in a chaotic set of elements,
      - or, parameters of an ordered structure of the same elements, when there is more information about the composition of the structure (high values of certain `order` parameters) and less entropy (measure of chaos) in the structure.

      Thus, synergy can be considered a generalization of information (or integration of a number of values of certain parameters `order`) according to some common features in a potentially synergetic system, which leading to the self-organization of a chaotic set of elements into an ordered structure consisting of the same elements.
     A transition occurs from quantity (part of the totality of a chaotic set of elements moves from an area of greater scale) to quality (to an area of greater functionality - an ordered structure consisting of these same elements).
      This process is characterized by the fact that the joint action of these factors significantly exceeds the simple sum of the actions of each of these factors.
      Thus quantitative values of order parameters are not `summed up` and how do they `multiply`.
      In each type of potentially synergetic system (chaotic set of elements), it is possible to define variables - `order` parameters, the value of which determines whether an act of synergy will occur, and then the set of elements will be ordered, acquire a structure, or, conversely, the chaotic set of elements of a potentially synergetic system will continue to remain in a chaotic state.
      Parameters `order` are usually selected at the macro level of consideration, and, at first glance, they may have different physical types (units of measurement), but their derived parameters `order` at the micro level may be of the same physical type (units of measurement), which allows for physical interaction (this allows us to build a formal model of this process).

      Electronic, quantum or biological model of morphogenesis is not implemented in artificial neural networks.

      Dendritic growth in neurons can be triggered by a variety of factors, including:
      - Genetic factors: Genetic predisposition can influence the development and branching of dendrites.
      - Synaptic activity: Synaptic activity stimulates dendrite growth and the formation of new dendritic spines.
      - Environment: Lifestyle, training, and experience can influence neuronal plasticity and promote dendrite growth.
      - Physical activity: Regular exercise can stimulate neurogenesis and dendritic growth.
      (The saturation of the blood flow with oxygen increases and the motor/sensory fields of the neocortex involved in controlling the movements of body parts become more `active` (the supply of oxygen/nutrients/heat release, ionic concentrations of substances, as well as the removal of waste products by glymphatic system (depends on neuroglia) , that arise during the metabolism of neuronal cells change in them), and this activity may partially affect other fields of the neocortex).
      Also, regular physical activity develops behavioral habits - `patterns` (and this is functioning `automatically`, which reduces the energy consumption of the brain and `pleases` the limbic system of the brain, which in response to this secretes `happiness hormones` - endorphins and other endogenous substances), then, `with pleasure` and without coercion, in parallel, it turns out to be distracted by the rational activity of the association areas of the neocortex not associated with ensuring physical activity (a kind of `deception` of the limbic system), which stimulates neurogenesis and the growth of dendrites.

      Neurotrophin proteins such as NGF (nerve growth factor), BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor), and others play an important role in the development and maintenance of neurons.
      Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a protein, one of the neurotrophic factors, expressed in various areas of the brain, including the cortex and hippocampus, and affects the development, survival and maintenance of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) (Mizoguchi, Yao, Imamura et al.)
      In 1982, researchers from the Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry Yves-Alain Bardet and Hans Thoenen obtained brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in experiments on the pig brain, which supported the survival and growth of nerve cells from cultured embryonic sensory neurons of chickens.
      A little later, James Leibrock determined the biochemical structure of the BDNF protein in humans.
      Over the next few years, neurotrophins were discovered every year, and to date, about 20 neurotrophic factors have been described, differing in structure and function.
      Exercise is a well-known strategy for increasing BDNF levels in the brain, so it has been proposed as a non-invasive way to mimic the effects of direct BDNF administration in chronic stress.
      Radahmadi et al. (2016) found that BDNF levels in the hippocampus increases in response to exercise following a chronic stress protocol.
      Both exercise and BDNF are associated with increased neurogenesis. Further research has expanded on this, showing that treadmill exercise in mice and aerobic exercise in humans increase BDNF expression by regulating BDNF gene expression in the hippocampus (Kim et al., 2015).
      The researchers found that aerobic exercise (running, walking, swimming, skiing, cycling, and other intermittent cardio) causes a shift in brain wave amplitude and frequency. More beta waves are produced, sense that the person is more focused and alert at the time. This effect does not disappear immediately after the end of the classes, but rather lasts for a certain time.

      Here's how NGF and BDNF proteins promote neuronal growth and survival:
      - Growth promotion: Neurotrophins bind to receptors on the surface of neurons, activating signaling pathways that stimulate the growth and branching of dendrites.
      - Survival support: These proteins prevent apoptosis (programmed cell death) of neurons, ensuring their survival.
      - Improved synaptic plasticity: Neurotrophins promote the formation and strengthening of synapses, which improves signaling between neurons.
      - Gene regulation: They can influence the expression of genes associated with neuronal growth and development, which contributes to long-term changes in neuronal structure and function.

      In addition to neurotrophins such as NGF and BDNF, other proteins influence neuronal growth:
      - Protocadherins (cPCDHs): These proteins are involved in regulating the spatial arrangement and connections of neurons in neocortex.
      - Neuroligins (NLGN): Membrane protein type I, are cell adhesion proteins on the postsynaptic membrane that mediate the formation and maintenance of synapses between neurons.
      These proteins play an important role in the formation and stabilization of synapses.
      - CAMs (Cell Adhesion Molecules): They are involved in cell-cell interactions and help neurons find their correct positions and connections.
      - Synapsin: This protein is involved in regulating the release of neurotransmitters and maintaining synaptic plasticity.

4.2.2. A large number of simultaneously operating complex functions generated by morphofunctional fields and subfields of the neocortex.

      4.2.3. The continuous variability of this multitude of complex neocortical functions during the life of an individual (hypothesis of synaptic homeostasis : during wakefulness, each neuron forms new synapses (3-4 pcs. if spontaneously or 30-40 pcs. according to Hebb's rule, when a person thinks hard about something, then blood flow increases in certain areas of the neocortex), and during sleep, each neuron's unnecessary synapses (3-4 pcs.) are destroyed), caused by continuous configuration (architecture) changes of a huge set of neural connections (constant `retraining` of the neocortex fields, which is not implemented in artificial neural networks).

      If the associative areas of the human brain neocortex are active, then the person is conscious (this happens when awake), while in the associative areas of the neocortex, spontaneous or directed synaptogenesis occurs according to Hebb's rule.

      By the age of 7-9, the initial formation of the structures of the associative areas and morphofunctional fields (their sizes) of the human brain neocortex occurs, and then continues until a fairly mature age (approximately by the age of 18), ends with final formation by the age of 25 - 27 (sometimes up to 30 years).

      These periods of maturation in humans are characterized by high rates of synaptogenesis in the waking state in the associative areas and morphofunctional fields of the neocortex of the brain.

      A, this means that the processing / experiencing / remembering of various events occurs faster and more emotionally, and, in a certain period of time (when a person is awake), he remembers much more vividly and more events that have occurred than in older years of his life (when the rates of synaptogenesis in waking states are decreasing).

      Therefore, in the young years of life, the time of wakefulness passes not boringly, many new events, the processes are intense, subjectively it takes a long period of time and contains many vivid impressions (events occurring in a comparable period of time are processed faster, remembered with less effort, and, in this period of time, more events `fit`).

      And, in the old years of life, subjectively, the time of wakefulness can pass unnoticed, according to debugged `algorithms` of existence and contain few memories (events occurring in a comparable period of time are processed more slowly, remembered with greater effort, and, in this period of time, fewer events `fit`).

      At the beginning, when a child is born, each neuron in the neocortex has approximately 2 connections, and then, as the child learns about the world around him, their number quickly increases.

      In children, per day, one neuron in the areas of the neocortex involved in learning can form approximately 50-100 new neural connections according to Hebb's rule (during the first 2 years of life, up to 700 new neural connections are formed every second), and in adults, per day, one neuron in the areas of the neocortex involved in learning can form approximately - 30-40 neural connections (in `resting`, when awake, areas, spontaneously 3-4 neural connections).

      It is also necessary to take into account that at different stages of a child's development, different types of perception, storage, and processing of information appear.
      Initially, these processes of processing various information are based on the limbic system of the brain, which can receive stimuli (Action Potentials (`Spikes`)): visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, from the corresponding receptors (the limbic system is involved in the lower emotional processing of input data from sensory systems).
      Responses to these stimuli are formed at the level of innate biological (animal) unconditioned reflexes and instincts.
      (In critical survival situations, in a state of extreme stress, the limbic system of the brain can, through the release of certain endogenous substances, partially `block` the `rational` work of the neocortex, and again return to predominantly biological (animal) functioning (take `control` of the body `upon itself`)).
      If, however, any new combinations of signals from certain stimuli are frequently repeated, then the variations in the use of their `images` (Cause-Effect Relationships) expand, which can probably lead to the creation of already conditional reflexes.
      Since most information about the surrounding world comes through the visual channel of perception, visual 'images' gradually occupy certain locations in the semantic networks of Cause-Effect Relationships (in a child, 'visual thinking' predominates, reminiscent of comic book plots).
      As structures are formed and the morphofunctional fields and associative areas of the neocortex of the brain begin to function more intensively (usually this occurs at the age of 7-9 years), proficiency in oral speech develops, and the process of thinking begins not only with more detailed visual 'images', but also with words describing meanings (Cause-Effect Relationships), which contributes to the deepening of the socialization process a child in society, in the presence of a positive environment, and also the acquisition of a large array of new knowledge.

      (Animals (primates and others) perceive, store, and process information through visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile stimuli.
Animal communication language itself uses many communication channels—visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile, and there is also a "body language" (postures).
The most important feature is its emotional nature.
The elements of this language are expressive exclamations (signals), roughly corresponding to words such as:
"Attention!", "Danger!", "Save yourselves!", "Look out!", "Get away!", "I'm here!", ...
Another important feature of animal language is the dependence of the alphabet of signals on the situation.
Many animals have only 10-20 sound signals, but they convey significantly more information, depending on the situation.
The semantic meaning of most signals is probabilistic, depending on the situation.
In this respect, animal language is similar to the language of human emotions (which is based on the limbic system of the brain).
However, animal signals are always very concrete (not abstract), and signal a specific situation or state.
This is their fundamental difference from human speech).